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TEACHER'S  MANUAL 

PART    IV 


FOR 


The  Prang  Elementary  Course 


IN 


ART    INSTRUCTION 

Books  7  and  8 

SIXTH     YEAR 

BY 

JOHN    S.    CLARK,    MARY   DANA   HICKS 
WALTER   S.    PERRY 


»  •  ■'. 


J  r         * 


THE  PRANG  EDUCATIONAL  COMPANY 

BOSTON     NEW  YORK     CHICAGO 


Copyright,  1899,  by 
THE  PRANG  EDUCATIONAL   .COMPANY. 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 


ARTS 

N  3  5^ 
AUTHORS'    PREFACE. 

No  person  can  be  oblivious  to  the  great  educational  development  of 
the  past  few  years.     The  introduction  of  the  kindergarten,  of  manual  train- 
^  ing,  of  nature  study,  of  drawing,  of  modeling,  and  of  color  work  into  the 

schools  have  all  led  the  way  to  a  broader  and  fuller  recognition  of  the 
subject  of  art  as  an  essentially  important  feature  of  public  education  both 
for  the  proper  development  of  the  individual  child  and  also  as  a  preparation 
for  practical  social  life. 

Art  for  Social  Well-being. 

The  psychological  developments  of  the  past  few  years,  whether  psy- 
chology be  regarded  from  the  old  metaphysical,  or  faculty,  standpoint,  or 
from  the  newer  standpoint  of  physiological  investigation,  also  establish 
the  supreme  ftnportance  of  art  as  the  expression  of  individual  creative 
activity  in  the  training  of  youth  for  social  well-being. 

Art  as  a  Subject  of  Public  Instruction. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  authors  of  this  Course  the  time  has  therefore 
come  when  the  subject  of  (art  as  a  definite,  fundamental  feature  of  public 
instruction  should  be  clearly  recognized ;  and  this  Course  is  a  serious  at- 
tempt to  formulate  for  the  schools  a  system  of  art  instruction  upon  a 
distinctly  psychological  and  educational  basis.  XThe  instruction  starts 
with  the  assumption  that  all  art  work  is  in  it^  nature  the  product  of 
creative  self-activity,  using  the  study  of  nature  and  of  art  for  certain 
definite,  conscious  ends,  and  that  drawing,  modeling,  and  work  with  color 
are  but  the  means  by  which  this  activity  is  manifested/ Accordingly,  in 
this  series  there  are  presented  principles  and  methq^of  instruction  radi- 
cally different  from  any  that  have  been  presented  heretofore,  and  embodied 


in 


IV  AUTHORS     PREFACE. 

in  an  entirely  new  set  of  exercises.     And  the  authors  fully  believe  that 
the  time  is  ripe  for  such  a  system  of  art  instruction  as  is  here  presented. 

Artists  and  Art  Teachers. 

There  are  now  a  goodly  number  of  trained  art  teachers  directing  the 
work  in  the  schools,  who  not  only  fully  understand  the  technicalities  of 
art,  but  who  are  also  acquainted  with  its  psychological  and  educational 
aspects.  And  then,  most  significant  of  all,  the  series  includes  contribu- 
tions from  some  of  our  most  eminent  American  artists :  — 

John  La  Faroe,  Frederick  S.  Church, 

Abbott  Thayer,  Ross  Turner, 

Edwin  H.  Blashfield,  Arthur  W.  Dow, 

WiNSLOw  Homer,  Herbert  Adams. 

A  Distinctive  Course. 

The  authors  of  this  system  do  not  feel  it  necessary  to  dwell  upon  the 
distinctive  features  which  make  this  Course  an  essentially  new  one  for  our 
public  schools.  A  mere  glance  at  the  illustrations  and  the  nature  of  the 
exercises  shows  how  essentially  different  in  aim  and  method  this  system  is 
from  any  which  has  preceded  it.  In  the  preparation  of  this  Course  the 
authors  have  received  assistance  from  very  many  persons,  and  they  take  a 
special  pleasure  in  acknowledging  the  valuable  assistance  they  have  re- 
ceived from  the  leading  supervisors  and  teachers  of  art  instruction  in  the 
country. 

The  authors  desire  to  acknowledge  the  very  great  assistance  received 
from  Mrs.  Edith  Clark  Chadwick,  in  the  preparation  of  the  illustrations. 

Valuable  Counsel. 

The  authors  also  desire  to  acknowledge  their  obligations  for  valuable 
counsel  to  Mrs.  Hannah  J.  Carter,  The  Prang  Normal  Art  Classes ;  Mrs. 
M.  E.  Riley,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  Mr.  James  Frederick 
Hopkins,  Art  Director,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Miss  Josephine  C.  Locke,  Super- 
visor of  Drawing,  Chicago,  111. ;  Prof.  W.  S.  Goodnough,  Supervisor  of 
Drawing,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  Miss  Katherine  E.  Shattuck,  Normal  Class, 


AUTHORS     PREFACE.  V 

Art  Department,  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  Miss  Sara  A.  Fawcett, 
Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Newark,  N.  J. ;  Miss  Elisa  A.  Sargent,  Supervisor 
of  Drawing,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa. ;  Miss  Augusta  L.  Balch,  Supervisor  of  Draw- 
ing, Salem,  Mass. ;  Miss  Helen  Fraser,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Columbus, 
O. ;  Miss  Myra  Jones,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Detroit,  Mich. ;  Miss  Stella 
Skinner,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  Miss  Mabel  S. 
Emery,  Boston,  Mass.  ;  Mrs.  Lucy  Fitch  Perkins,  Chicago,  111.  ;  Miss  Edith 
Palmer,  Director  of  Art,  Tome  Institute,  Port  Deposit,  Md. ;  Mr.  Alfred 
V.  Churchill,  Director  of  Art,  Teachers'  College,  New  York;  Miss  Eliza 
B.  Richardson,  Mrs.  Alice  Brannan  Haley,  The  Prang  Normal  Art 
Classes  ;  Miss  Wilhelmina  Seegmiller,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Indianapolis, 
Ind.;  Miss  Ruth  Warner,  Art  Instructor,  Teachers'  Training  Classes, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  ;  Miss  Bonnie  Snow,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Minne- 
apolis, Minn. ;  Miss  Harriette  L.  Rice,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Providence, 
R.  I. ;  Miss  Mary  W.  Gilbert,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  New  Bedford, 
Mass. ;  Miss  Ida  E.  Boyd,  Primary  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y. ;  Mrs.  Lucy  Booth,  Boston,  Mass.  ;  Mrs.  Franc  Elliott,  Supervisor  of 
Drawing,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah ;  Miss  Mary  E.  Garretson,  Supervisor  of 
Drawing,  Allegheny,  Pa.  ;  Miss  Estelle  E.  Potter,  Supervisor  of  Drawing, 
New  London,  Conn. ;  Miss  Ruth  Gould,  Chicago,  111. 

JOHN  S.  CLARK, 
MARY  DANA  HICKS, 
August  I,  iSgg.  WALTER  S.  PERRY. 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

AUTHORS'  PREFACE iii-v 

TABLE   OF  CONTENTS vii 

INTRODUCTION 

Art  and  Art  Education .        .  1-3 

What  is  Needed  for  Art  Training 3,  4 

The  Subject  Divisions  of  Art  Instruction 4 

Representation 5-22 

Decoration 22-38 

Construction c'       .        .        .        .  3S-45 

Composition 45-50 

Training  of  /Ksthktic  Judgment       .        , 51-56 

General  Directions ,        .        .        .  57-64 

PRANG  COURSE. 

Purpose  of  the  Course ,  67 

Plan  of  the  Series     .        , 68-71 

BOOKS  7   AND   8. 

General  Plan  for  the  Sixth  Year 71-78 

BOOK  7. 

Millet.  —  John  La  Farge.  —  Branches,  Berries.  — Trees.  —  Type  Solids:  Cube,  Square,  ^^ 
Prism.  —  Familiar  Objects.  —  Figure  Studies.  —  Window  Study.  —  Egyptian  Orna- 
ment. —  Greek    Ornament.  —  Space    Relations :     Mouldings,    Door    Casings    and 

Window  Frames. — Arthur  W.  Dow. —  Egyptian  Art 79-166 

vii 


Vlil  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 

BOOK  8. 

PAGE 

Edwin  H.  Blashfield,  Anna  E.  Klumpke.  —  Hokusai's  Daughter,  Hiroshige.  —  Beautiful 
Objects.  —  Light  and  Dark,  Light  and  Shade.  —  Animal  Studies.  —  Greek  Orna- 
ment.—  Type  Solids  or  Objects:  Views,  Patterns.  —  Floor  Plans.  —  Problems. — 
Bracket  Designs.  —  Spring  Flowers.  —  Decorative  Design  from  a  Flower,  Space 
Relations.  —  Landscape,  Elementary  Composition.  —  La  Farge,  Rembrandt.  — 
Greek  Art 167-267 


APPENDIX,  Theoretic  Perspective ,  269 


INTRODUCTION. 


ART   AND   ART    EDUCATION. 

The  Prang  Elementary  Course  of  Art  Instruction  assumes  that  Art 
properly  understood  is  not  an  imitative  copy  of  nature,  but  a  new  creative  use 
of  nature's  materials  for  human  purposes.  The  primitive  industrial  arts  —  building, 
weaving,  pottery-making,  and  the  like  —  stood,  not  for  the  mere  reflection  or  multi- 
plication of  already  existing  natural  objects,  but  for  human  ideas  (at  first  very  dim) 
about  the  needs  of  life  and  about  ways  of  meeting  those  needs.  The  great  con- 
structive, industrial  arts  of  to-day,  which  have  grown  out  of  these  rude,  primitive 
arts,  rise  from  the  same  source,  a  source  within  human  nature ;  and  that  source  is 
what  is  called  creative  imagination. 

But  the  human  race  has  other  needs  than  those  for  shelter,  food,  and  clothing  to 
the  satisfaction  of  which  the  industrial  or  "  useful  "  arts  are  chiefly  directed.  Men 
have  not  alone  bodies  to  be  cared  for,  but  also  hearts,  minds,  and  souls'  crying  out 
for  nourishment,  for  exercise,  for  growth.  Feelings  of  love,  admiration,  and  awe 
are  as  "  natural  "  as  feelings  of  cold  and  hunger,  only  they  have  to  do  with  a  higher 
phase  of  human  nature  than  that  which  pertains  to  the  body.  They  are  that  for 
which  the  body  exists.  iMan  instinctively  tries  to  express  his  best  self  in  a  way  to 
appeal  to  others  ;  and  thus  the  so-called  "  Fine  Arts "  have  come  into  existence, 
including  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  all  interrelated  in  practical  affairs 
and  all  related  so  closel>^  to  the  industrial  or  "  useful "  arts  that  the  dividing  line 
between  them  is  more  theoretic  than  real.  The  source  of  the  Fine  Arts,  therefore, 
is  within  our  human  nature.  It  is  the  creative  imagination,  directed  by  the  heart, 
mind,  and  soul,  which  here  uses  nature's  facts  in  its  own  way. 

This  is,  in  brief,  the  general  idea  of  art  which  the  authors  aim  to  embody 
in  The  Prang  Elementary  Course  of  Art  Instruction.  It  is  by  no  means  desired 
that  philosophic  theories  of  art  be  imposed  upon  children.  If  teachers  grasp  the 
underlying  idea,  they  will  naturally  use  more  consistent  and  practical  methods  of 
class-work  than  are  sometimes  followed  in  a  haphazard  way,  in  the  absence  of 
any  real  understanding  of  what  art  is. 

I  • 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

With  this  idea  of  art  and  its  place  in  the  world,  as  a  basis  in  the  teacher's 
mind,  it  will  be  apparent  that  elementary  art  instruction  should  aim  to  develop  the 
best  mental  powers  of  each  individual  child.  The  growth  of  the  children's  creative 
imagination  along  healthy  hnes,  accompanied  by  growth  in  manual  skill  as  the 
result  of  actual  practice  in  doing  things,  is  the  main  purpose  of  the  whole  course. 
To  this  end  the  child  is  led  to  make  and  classify  in  his  mind  observations  of  form 
and  color  in  nature,  and  observations  of  form  and  color  as  used  by  master-workers 
\  in  already  existing  art  creations.  These  two  correlated  lines  of  observation  — 
together  with  the  exercise  of  personal,  creative  activity  —  are  of  the  greatest  educa- 
tional importance.  The  helpful  influence  of  studying  good  art  examples  cannot  be 
overestimated,  quickening  as  they  do  the  child's  artistic  sense,  inspiring  him  with 
fresh  interest  and  leading  him  to  work  toward  higher  ideals  than  those  which  he 
would  perceive  unaided. 

For  instance,  in  connection  with  the  study  of  Nature  for  her  material  facts  and 
her  spiritual  meanings,  the  pupil  studies  fine  artistic  renderings  of  nature,  —  plant 
Hfe,  animal  life,  and  landscape,  where  beauty  of  space  arrangement  is  well  con- 
sidered, —  leading  up  to  studies  of  fine  landscape  motives  in  the  best  decorative 
composition,  and  to  the  creative  utilization  of  landscape  motives  in  original 
compositions. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  Industrial  Construction  pupils  are  led  to 
consider  not  only  fitness  of  form  to  material  and  to  purpose,  but  also  beauty  of 
form  and  proportion  and  of  space  relations.  Examples  of  constructive  drawing 
where  all  these  elements  have  been  carefully  considered  are  presented  for  study  in 
the  various  grades,  giving*  a  wide  variety  of  subjects,  and  in  the  higher  grades 
broadening  into  the  study  of  examples  of  architectural  masterpieces. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  Historic  Ornament  and  Decorative  Design  the 
pupil  also  studies  space  relations,  both  through  observation  of  examples  and  through 
original,  creative  work,  learning  to  see  in  the  characteristic  ornaments  of  different 
nations  and  different  ages  not  simply  a  record  of  environments  and  race  histories, 
but  also  and  above  all  a  showing  of  the  manifold  ways  in  which  people  have  tried  to 
express  their  own  ideals  of  beauty  and  harmony  in  form  and  color  and  in  space 
relations. 

Pose  Drawing,  begun  in  the  lowest  grades  and  there  incidentally  utilized  as  a 
means  of  illustrating  stories  of  human  character  and  action,  is  strengthened  in  every 
grade  by  the  presentation  of  artists'  drawings  from  the  pose ;  and,  as  the  study  of 
beauty  in  space  relations  gradually  shows  its  bearing  upon  pose  drawing,  the  exam- 
ples given   from  great  artists  like  Thayer,  Sargent,  Blashfield,  and  La  Farge  lead 


ART  AND   ART  EDUCATION.  3 

pupils'  power  of  appreciation  up  toward  the  supreme  artistic  utilization  of  the 
human  figure  in  the  greatest  decorative  art,  where  man's  own  image  is  used  to  show 
forth  the  finest  feelings,  the  most  exquisite  fancies,  and  the  greatest  thoughts  of 
the  masters. 

To  reach  these  ends  necessarily  implies  careful  training  for  the  pupil.  Draw- 
ing is  not  "  natural "  to  children  in  the  same  sense  in  which  speaking,  walking,  and 
eating  are  natural.  Counting  out  the  rare  artistic  geniuses  that  appear  not  once  or 
twice  in  a  whole  generation  of  children,  it  must  always  remain  true  that  good 
drawing  cannot  be  secured  merely  by  giving  children  opportunity  for  the  expression 
of  their  present  selves,  but  by  sympathetic,  intelligent,  conscientious  training, 
leading  them  toward  still  higher  stages  of  appreciation  and  of  creative  power. 

Yet  the  development  of  personal  skill  in  drawing  is  only  a  part  of  the  purpose 
of  the  Course.  The  cultivation  of  readiness  in  the  use  of  drawing  in  connection 
with  other  studies  is  also  a  part  of  the  purpose.  These  are  means  toward  an  end. 
The  end  is  twofold ;  it  includes  the  development  of  individual,  creative  power 
according  to  the  measure  of  each  child's  natural  endowment,  and  it  includes  the 
development  of  individual,  appreciative  power,  each  child  rising  gradually  from 
the  point  where  he  enjoys  only  the  sort  of  thing  which  he  can  do  for  himself,  up  to 
a  point  where  he  is  able  to  enter  in  some  measure  into  the  thought  and  feeling  of 
really  great  artists. 

What   is  needed   for   Art  Training. 

In  preparing  material  for  such  art  training,  the  needs  of  the  supervisor  or 
director  of  the  teachers  and  children  must  be  carefully  considered.  The  drawing- 
book  with  fine  examples  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture  from  masters  on 
illustrative  pages  and  with  special  examples  on  the  drawing  pages  is  needed.  Such 
a  drawing-book  gives  inspiration  and  instruction  to  teachers  and  children  by 
examples  of  good  composition  and  rendering,  of  historic  ornament,  and  of  conven- 
tions of  industrial  drawing,  and  also  by  providing  that  sequence  of  work  which  is  so 
essential  for  all  true  progress. 

The  supervisor  or  director  may  direct  and  personally  inspire  the  teachers 
through  meetings,  classes,  visits,  and  courses  of  study,  but  even  with  drawing-books 
these  cannot  suffice  for  the  needs  of  the  teachers  in  the  absence  of  the  supervisor. 
Therefore,  manuals  are  provided  which  enable  the  supervisor  or  director  to  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  teachers  the  general  plan,  principles,  and  methods  of  Art 
Instruction  for  reference  and   for  study. 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

4 

In  addition  to  drawing-books  and  manuals,  the  teachers  should  be  supplied 
with  material  which  will  serve  to  educate  and  elevate  the  pupils  —  objects  of  nature 
and  of  art  which  will  help  in  the  formation  of  ideals.  Growing  plants  in  the 
windows  of  the  schoolroom  will  do  much  to  bring  the  child  to  a  love  and  apprecia- 
tion of  nature. 

Types  of  form  —  the  type  models,  and  types  of  color  as  found  in  the  color 
unit,  are  needed  as  standards  by  which  to  classify  and  to  appreciate  general  form 
and  color.  Beautiful  objects  of  art  as  subjects  for  study  and  for  drawing  aid  very 
much  in  the  cultivation  of  taste.  A  collection  of  fine  pottery  forms  is  a  valuable 
adjunct  in  Art  Instruction. 

And  finally,  examples  of  the  great  art  conceptions  of  the  world,  simply 
framed  and  hung  upon  the  walls  of  the  schoolroom,  will  create  an  atmosphere  of 
fine  thought  and  feeling  conducive  to  that  appreciation  and  production  of  the 
beautiful  by  each  individual  pupil  for  which  Art  Instruction  aims. 


THE  SUBJECT   DIVISIONS  OF  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

There  are  three  distinct  yet  correlaf?d  subjects  in  Art  Instruction  which  call 
for  careful  consideration  :  — 

Representation,  the  science  and  art  of  delineating  or  representing  objects  as  they 

appear  to  the  eye. 
Decoration,  the  science  and  art  of  producing  beauty  in  ornament. 
Construction,  the  science  and  art  of  making  diagrams  or  working-drawings,  which 

give  the  facts  of  objects,  and  from  which  objects  may  be  constructed. 

Every  course  of  drawing  should  give  well-balanced  and  closely  connected 
instruction  in  the  three  subjects,  —  Representation,  Decoration,  Construction, — 
should  lead  to  the  appreciation  of  beautiful  form  in  each  of  the  three  subjects,  and 
should  provide  suitable  examples  of  "  rendering  "  as  well  as  of  historic  ornament. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  nature  of  these  three  subjects  clearly  devel- 
oped in  the  minds  of  the  pupils ;  and  frequent  opportunity  should  be  taken  to 
recall  and  impress  them.  Instruction  in  the  three  subjects  should  be  as  nearly 
parallel  as  possible ;  it  would  be  found  a  great  disadvantage  to  pursue  one  of  them 
for  six  months  at  a  time  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  two. 


REPRESENTATION.  5 

Composition  is  essential  in  all  these  subjects.  It  includes  selection,  arrange- 
ment, proportion,  space  relations.  Thus  there  is  composition  in  pictures  —  com- 
position in  ornament  —  composition  in  constructive  design.  Composition  in  art,  as 
in  literature  and  in  music,  may  be  studied  in  the  work  of  artists,  but  it  can  be 
produced  only  by  the  individual,  as  it  of  necessity  implies  original  work. 

Representation;    or,  Drawing  as  Applied  in   Representing  the 

Appearance  of   Objects. 

Representation  not  only  deals  with  the  truth  of  appearance  :  it  also  requires 
the  making  of  a  picture  by  composition  as  well  as  by  drawing.  The  art  principles 
of  selection  and  arrangement  can  be  applied  in  elementary  composition  by  the 
pupils,  not  only  in  the  selection  and  grouping  of  objects  to  make  a  picture,  but  also 
in  selection  and  arrangement  in  landscape.  Here  space  relation  and  line  direction 
play  important  parts.  It  must  be  remembered  that  composition  appeals  directly  to 
the  creative  faculty. 

What  a  Picture  is.  —  A  true  picture  not  only  shows  how  an  object  or  a  group 
of  objects  appears,  but  it  also  tells  something  of  the  one  who  has  drawn  the  picture. 
It  tells  how  the  object  looked  to  him  ;  it  tells  not  only  what  he  saw,  but  also  what  he 
thought  about  the  objects.  For  whoever  draws  a  picture  indicates,  or  tries  to  indi- 
cate, in  the  drawing  what  parts  he  cared  for  most.  He  also  endeavors  to  show  his 
ideas  of  beautiful  composition.  This  human  element,  added  to  the  true  presentation 
of  the  appearance  of  objects,  makes  the  real  picture. 

Now  a  picture  may  be  in  outline,  in  light  and  dark,  in  light  and  shade,  or  in  color. 
The  study  and  drawing  of  the  appearance  of  simple  models  and  objects  for  the  mere 
outline  is  valuable  in  order  to  attain  a  realization  of  the  true  appearance  in  different 
positions.  Along  with  this,  there  should  be  a  study  of  the  best  methods  of  express- 
ing the  relative  importance  of  objects,  of  showing  the  greatest  beauty  of  contour  and 
of  light  and  shade,  and  of  giving  feeling  to  the  work  by  drawing  ;  also  of  suggesting 
color  through  light  and  dark  by  "  pencil-painting  "  or  by  ink  and  the  brush,  or  by 
painting  with  color. 

Pictorial  Composition. 

Its  Purpose.  —  One  of  the  most  important  elements  in  Representation  is  that 
of  composition.  This  element  enters  into  all  Representation,  whether  of  single 
objects  or  a  group  of  objects.  Its  purpose  is  to  create  a  subtle  arrangement  or  syn- 
thesis of  lines,  of  forms,  of  colors,  which  shall  present  a  beautiful  whole.     The  final 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

test  of  composition  must  be  its  effect  in  producing  a  beautiful  impression  as  a  whole 
—  an  impression  attained  only  through  that  interrelation  and  subordmation  of  parts 
which  make  oneness  —  unity.  Ruskin  defines  composition  as  "  the  help  of  every- 
thing in  the  picture  by  everything  else."  The  first  step  toward  composition  is  selec- 
tion, looking  toward  harmony.  The  objects  selected  for  a  group  may  be  beautiful 
in  themselves,  and  yet,  if  their  relation  to  each  other,  if  their  mutual  "  help  "  is  not 
considered,  if,  in  other  words,  they  are  not  "  composed,"  the  effect  as  a  whole  will 
not  be  beautiful. 

Selection  of  Objects.  —  It  is  well  to  remember  that  even  in  its  beginnings  this 
work  should  be  pictorial  art.  For  this  purpose,  select  objects  which  are  beautiful  in 
form  and  pleasing  in  association.  The  many  pleasant  associations  that  we  have  with 
objects  which  are  constant  companions  form  a  good  basis  for  direct  study. 

The  selection  of  natural  objects  must  be  made  with  equal  care.  It  is  frequently 
said  that  "Nature  never  makes  a  mistake."  The  inference  made  by  some  from 
this  statement  is  that  all  natural  objects  are  beautiful.  A  moment's  reflection  will 
show  that  this  is  not  true.  In  selecting  natural  objects,  of  any  definite  kind,  for 
Form  Study  and  Drawing,  the  guiding  thought  should  be  to  choose  characteristic  and 
beautiful  examples. 

A  Group.  —  In  making  a  group,  determine  first  the  idea  to  be  expressed,  thus 
leading  to  the  selection  of  objects  having  harmonious  relations.  The  idea  of  the 
group,  then,  controls  the  selection  of  the  objects  —  here  again  appears  the  maxim,  as 
true  in  art  as  in  education,  the  whole  before  the  parts.  If  the  idea  is  to  express  the 
beauty  of  fruit,  let  the  group  be  wholly  of  fruit.  If  the  idea  is  to  express  the  beauty  of 
vegetables,  —  fruits  of  the  earth,  —  let  the  group  be  wholly  of  vegetables.  A  variety 
of  things  having  no  apparent  connection  with  one  another  gives  no  pleasure  in  a 
picture,  and  distracts  rather  than  composes.  For  instance,  a  group  of  delicate  fruit 
with  rougher  vegetables  seems  inharmonious.  They  have  not  enough  in  common, 
either  in  the  purpose  which  they  serve  or  in  their  general  appearance.  The  arrange- 
ment is  incongruous.     Only  the  most  hardy  fruit  should  be  grouped  with  vegetables. 

The  Arrangement  of  a  Group.  —  If  a  picture  of  a  group  is  desired,  it  will  not, 
then,  be  satisfactory  to  place  the  objects  at  random  and  draw  them.  Some  thought 
must  be  given  to  the  arrangement ;  for,  if  arranged  in  one  way,  the  group  may  be 
very  pleasing,  while  if  arranged  differently,  the  group  may  not  be  at  all  pleasing.  If 
such  arrangements  are  considered  thoughtfully,  it  will  be  found  that,  in  the  one  case, 
the  simple  principles  of  elementary  composition  have  been  regarded,  and  in  the 
other  they  have  been  disregarded.  It  will  be  found,  moreover,  that  these  principles 
of  composition  are  so  simple  and  natural  that  children  may  be  led  to  discover  them. 
In  studying  the  arrangement  of  a  group,  consider  :  — 


REPRESENTATION.  7 

1.  The  place  of  the  principal  object. 

2.  The  place  of  the  secondary  objects. 

3.  The  figure  made  by  the  group  on  the  ground  or  table. 

4.  Partial  view  of  some  of  the  objects. 

5.  Upper  line  of  the  group. 

6.  Variety  in  the  positions  of  the  axes  and  in  the  faces  visible. 

7.  Repose  of  the  objects. 

8.  Unity  of  the  group  —  distance  between  objects. 

(i)  Choose  the  principal  object,  and,  generally,  place  it  centrally  but  not 
exactly  in  the  centre ;  (2)  do  not  place  the  other  objects  in  a  straight  line  with  the 
principal  object;  (3)  try  the  effect  of  placing  the  objects  so  that  if  the  centres  of 
their  bases  were  connected  an  irregular  figure  would  be  made ;  (4)  place  them  as 
if  they  were  good  friends  and  belonged  together,  and  (5)  so  that  they  will  appear 
at  rest.  But  remember  (6)  that  the  objects  should  not  have  the  same  positions,  that 
is,  their  axes  should  not  be  all  upright  or  all  horizontal ;  they  should  not  be  parallel 
or  at  right  angles  to  each  other ;  and  they  should  not  present  exactly  the  same 
faces;  and  (7)  one  of  the  objects  should  be  partially  hidden  behind  another,  even 
if  there  are  no  more  than  two  objects  in  the  group.  Look  now  (8)  to  see  if,  in  the 
group  that  you  have  made,  the  objects  will  appear  of  the  same  height  when  drawn. 
If  so,  change  them,  for  the  effect  will  not  be  pleasing.  By  skilful  questioning,  the 
pupils  can  be  led  to  these  points. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  unity,  repose,  and  variety  are  emphasized  as  of  particular 
importance.  They  are  indeed  essentials  in  all  good  pictorial  composition.  Both 
variety  and  repose  should  be  tributary  to  unity  in  any  composition.  Where  unity  is 
lacking,  repose  is  always  lacking. 

Consider  also  the  arrangement  with  reference  to  carrying  the  eye  into  the 
picture.  Placing  one  object  farther  back  than  another  suggests  distance  into  the 
picture,  which  is  always  pleasing,  as  it  brings  with  it  the  feeling  of  freedom  and 
atmosphere.  If  one  of  the  objects  is  placed  so  that  its  axis  or  its  leading  lines  tend 
from  you,  it  will  aid  in  producing  the  effect  of  distance. 

And  as  a  test  of  the  whole,  consider  the  general  space  relations.  These  may  be 
shown  in  a  very  satisfactory  way  by  enclosing  the  group,  as  it  were,  by  observing  it 
through  an  oblong  opening  cut  in  paper,  which  will  make  a  frame  for  the  group. 
The  hands  held  first  vertically  and  then  horizontally  also  suggest  a  frame. 

Placing. 

Placing  Objects  or  Groups. — Thought  should  be  given  to  the  placing  of  the 
various  sprays,  objects,  or  groups,  so  that  they  may  be  advantageously  seen.     It  is 


8 


INTRODUCTION. 


always  better  for  a  pupil  to  draw  from  an  object  or  group  on  some  desk  other  than 
his  own,  to  get  the  softening  and  unifying  effect  of  distance  :  and  frequently  it  is 
well  that  the  object  or  group  drawn  should  be  at  considerable  distance.  After  the 
objects  or  groups  are  placed,  let  each  pupil  look  about  the  room  to  find  that  which 
he  likes  the  best  and  which  he  can  see  in  its  best  position ;  for  art  seeks  for  the 
best. 

The  placing  of  objects  is  generally  something  of  a  problem.  But  in  the  case 
of  an  upright  cylindric  or  conic  object,  which  always  appears  the  same,  the  solution 
is  easy.  Boards  may  be  procured  long  enough  to  extend  across  the  aisles  between 
the  desks.  Two  such  boards  would  be  required  for  each  alternate  aisle,  one  being 
needed  at  the  front  and  one  halfway  down  the  aisle.  Cleats  may  be  screwed  on 
the  ends  of  the  boxes  of  the  desk  to  serve  as  supports  for  these  boards  when  they 
are  needed  for  the  drawing  exercise.  The  other  aisles  will  be  left  free  for  the  teacher 
or  pupils.     At  the  close  of  the  exercise,  the  boards  can  be  removed  and  put  away. 


Other  models  and  objects  may  be  arranged  on  the  desks.  Each  pupil  may  pile 
three  or  four  books  far  back  upon  the  desk,  alternately  at  the  left  and  right.  If 
there  is  absolutely  no  level  part  of  the  desk,  raise  the  pile  by  placing  a  folded  paper 
under  the  front,  so  that  there  may  be  a  surface  about  level  for  the  models.  On  the 
upper  book  place  a  sheet  of  manila  paper,  and  then  arrange  the  models  or  objects 
to  make  a  pleasing  group.     Be  careful  that  the  objects  are  not  too  far  below  the  eye. 

If  branches  are  to  be  drawn  they  may  be  hung  in  various  places,  so  as  to  give 
the  best  opportunity  for  study  to  the  greatest  number.  If  they  are  hung  on  the 
blackboard  for  the  pupils  in  the  front  seats,  a  piece  of  white  or  neutral-tinted  paper 
should  be  placed  behind  them.  A  pasteboard  folded  like  a  table  picture-frame  or 
an  open  book  standing  on  a  board  across  the  aisle  serves  very  well  as  a  support  foi 
a  small  branch. 

A  spray  of  leaves  or  flowers  should  be  studied  from  all  sides  to  discover  its  most 


REPRESENTATION.  9 

pleasing  aspect.  It  is  well  to  have  a  spray  placed  in  a  vase  of  good  form  ;  if  that  is 
not  practicable,  it  is  frequently  possible  to  keep  the  spray  in  good  position  by  plac- 
ing the  end  between  the  leaves  of  a  closed  book  which  is  standing.  It  is  well,  also, 
to  have  the  spray  at  some  little  distance  from  the  pupil  who  is  drawing  it.  It  may 
sometimes  be  desirable  to  remove  part  of  the  stem  or  a  leaf  or  two,  or  perhaps  to 
add  another  spray,  in  order  to  get  a  good  effect.  The  Japanese  make  the  arrange- 
ment of  leaves  and  flowers  a  very  serious  study.  There  is  an  interesting  book  by 
Conder  on  this  Japanese  art. 

Appearance  of  Objects. 

Technical  Points.  —  There  are  certain  technical  points  and  general  principles 
which  follow  concerning  the  appearance  of  objects  that  every  teacher  should  know. 
The  pupil  in  the  primary  and  lower  grammar  grades  learns  these  points  simply  as 
matters  of  experience  without  definite  statement,  but  in  the  upper  grammar  grades 
generalization  concerning  these  points  begins  and  teachers  should  be  prepared. 

Why  the  Appearance  of  Objects  differs  from  their  Facts.  —  The  appearance  of 
an  object  as  to  outhnes  depends  on  two  conditions  :  — 

I.    Its  position  in  regard  to  the  observer.     2.    Its  distance  from  the  observer. 
Position  affects  the  apparent  FORM  of  an  object ;  distance  affects  the  appai-ent  size. 
The  apparent  form  of  any  object,  except  a  perfect  sphere,  varies  with  every  posi' 
Hon  in  which  it  is  placed  in  regard  to  the  observer. 

The  apparent  size  of  an  object  decreases  as  its  distance  front  the  observer  increases. 

The  effect  of  distance  on  the  apparent  size  of  an  object  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation.  Compare  a  vertical  measurement  on  the  pencil  (see  page  lo)  of  an 
object  at  a  distance  of  three  feet,  with  a  vertical  measure  of  the  same  object  at  a 
distance  of  ten  feet. 

Measurement  on  the  Pencil. — The  use  of  measurement  on  the  pencil  is  to 
ohia.m  proportion.  If  pupils  do  not  already  know  how  to  measure  on  the  pencil, 
the  following  practice  is  desirable.  The  teacher  draws  upon  the  board  at  the  front 
of  the  room  vertical  oblongs  of  different  proportions.  If  the  schoolroom  is  wide, 
it  will  be  better  to  have  several  such  oblongs,  —  some  at  the  left,  some  in  the 
middle,  and  some  at  the  right  end  of  the  board.  The  teacher  gives  the  following 
directions,  and  sees  that  each  is  intelligently  carried  out  before  proceeding  to  the 
next,  explaining  that  the  measurement  to  be  taken  first  is  the  width  of  the  oblong, 
—  next  the  height  of  the  oblong.  The  exercise  may  be  varied  by  measuring  objects 
in  the  room,  as  window-panes,  door-panels,  etc. 

Remember  that  these  measurements  give  proportion  only,  not  size. 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


In  measuring  horizontally,  take  great  care  that  the  pencil  is  parallel  to  the  line 
of  the  eyes ;  in  measuring  vertically,  that  the  pencil  does  not  incline  either  back- 
ward or  forward,  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left ;  that  it  is  kept  in  the  same  plane, 
as  if  against  a  vertical  pane  of  glass  directly  in  front  of  the  eye.^ 

As  it  is  necessary  that  the  distance  of  the  pencil  from  the  object  should  be 
absolutely  the  same  while  studying  any  one  object  or  group,  all  measurements  should 
be  taken  with  the  shoulders  resting  firmly  against  the  back  of  the  chair,  and  the 
pencil  at  arm's  length ;  it  will  be  necessary  also  to  take  all  measurements  with  one 
eye  closed. 

Position  and  Practice  by  Pupils  in  Holding  the  Pencil  for  Measurement. — 
Sit  well  back  in  the  chair,  with  head  erect,  and  shoulders  resting  firmly  against  the 
back  of  the  chair.  Grasp  the  pencil  in  the  middle  with  the  fingers,  leaving  the 
thumb,  and  as  occasion  demands,  the  forefinger,  free  to  move  along  the  pencil. 


'^j-' 


Hold  the  pencil  horizontal  zxA  parallel  \.o  the  line  of  the  eyes,  at  arm's  length,, 
with  the  point  to  the  right.  Drop  the  hand  to  rest.  Hold  the  pencil  vertical  (not 
inclining  either  backward  or  forward,  either  to  the  right  or  the  left),  at  arm's  length, 
with  the  point  downward. 

Measuring  Horizontally.  —  Sit  back  in  the  chair,  close  one  eye,  and  hold  the 
pencil  horizontal,  at  arm's  length,  with  the  point  to  the  right,  and  so  that  the  left 
end  appears  to  be  just  at  the  left  side  of  the  form  or  figure  to  be  measured ;  move 
the  thumb  until  it  appears  to  be  just  at  the  right  side.  Fig.  i,  page  ii. 


1  These  are  the  accepted  rules  for  measurement,  and  at  present  they  seem  the  most  practical  ones. 
Cylindric,  conic  and  spheric  perspective  bring  up  some  problems  with  regard  to  these  rules  that  are  not  yet 
worked  out. 

Those  who  are  interested  in  the  subject  of  perspective  problems  will  find  them  admirably  treated  itv 
"  Modern  Perspective,"  by  Professor  William  R.  Ware. 


REPRESENTATION.  11 

Measuring  Vertically.  —  Hold  the  pencil  vertical,  at  arm's  length,  with  the 
point  downward,  at  such  a  height  that  the  upper  end  of  the  pencil  appears  to  be 
exactly  on  a  line  with  the  upper  side  of  the  form  or  figure  to  be  measured ;  move 
the  thumb  up  or  down  the  pencil  until  the  thumb  appears  to  be  on  a  Hne  with  the 
lower  side  of  the  form  or  figure,  Fig.  2,  below. 

Comparing  Two  Measurements.  —  Remember  always  to  take  the  same  position 
(back  in  the  chair,  pencil  at  arm's  length)  for  any  two  measurements  that  you  wish 
to  compare  ;  an^  that  the  tneasurements  give  proportion  only,  not  size.  Take  the 
shorter  measurement  on  the  pencil,  keep  it  by  holding  the  thumb  fixed ;  turn  the  pen- 
cil and  compare  this  measurement  with  the  longer,  by  seeing  how  many  times  the 
shorter  measurement  can  be  repeated  in  the  longer.  Decide  carefully  upon  the 
proportion  between  the  two  measurements. 


Fig.  I.  Fig.  2. 

As  a  preliminary  to  the  exercises  in  Representation,  this  practice  can  be  given 
in  measurement  on  the  pencil.  It  is  not  intended,  however,  that  in  the  early  exer- 
cises the  objects  shall  be  studied  by  measurement  on  the  pencil,  as  it  is  desired  to 
lead  the  pupils  to  see  approximately  the  appearance  of  objects  without  this  aid.  It 
would  be  well  to  call  for  judgment  by  the  eye  first,  then  measurement  on  the  pencil. 
And  even  when  measurements  on  the  pencil  are  made,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
they  are  of  assistance  only  in  determining  general  proportion.  It  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  secure  absolutely  correct  measurements  by  such  means  ;  the  eye  must  always 
be  the  final  test. 

Study  of  Direction  of  Edges.  —  In  order  to  study  the  direction  of  a  horizontal 
edge,  hold  a  pencil  horizontal  and  parallel  to  the  line  of  the  eyes,  at  arm's  length, 
with  the  point  to  the  right.  Raise  or  lower  the  pencil  as  the  edge  to  be  observed 
may  be  higher  or  lower ;  but  keep  it  always  horizontal  and  parallel  to  the  line  of 
the  eyes.  Compare  the  direction  of  the  edge  observed  with  that  of  the  pencil. 
The  observation,  by  this  means,  of  the  upper  edge  of  a  door  or  of  a  window-blind, 
open  and  shut,  brings  out  admirably  the  difference  in  apparent  direction. 


12 


INTRODUCTION. 


General  Principles.  —  Nearly  all  the  principles  in  this  subject  can  be  gained 
from  the  study  of  the  appearance  of  type  forms,  the  simplest  geometric  solids. 
These  type  forms  may  be  broadly  classified  as  :  — 

I.    Cylindric  forms.     2.    Rectangular  forms. 

By  observations  of  such  forms,  pupils  may  be  led  to  see,  and  to  express  orally 
and  by  drawing  :  — 

/.    T/iai  a  circle  seen  obliquely  always  appears  like  an  ellipse. 

2.    That  the  more  obliquely  the  circle  is  seen,  the  more  nearly  the  ellipse  approaches 
a  straight  line. 


3.  That  the  less  obliquely  the  circle  is  seen,  the  more  nearly  the  ellipse  approaches 

a  circle. 

4.  That  a  horizontal  face,  when  above  or  below  the  eye,  always  appears  foreshortened. 

L.ofE.  VP 


5.  That  the  farther  of  two  edges,  horizontal  from  left  to  right,  appears  shorter  than 

the  nearer. 

6.  That  all  parallel  horizontal  edges,  receding  from  the  eye,  appear  to  converge. 

7.  That  all  receding  horizontal  edges  appear  to  incline  toward  the  level  of  the  eye, 

and  must  be  so  drawn. 


REPRESENTA  TION. 


13 


8.  Thai  all  parallel  horizontal  edges  receding  from  the  eye  appear  to  converge  to  a 
point  on  the  level  of  the  eye,  and  must  be  drawn  so  that,  if  produced,  they  will 
meet  in  a  point  on  the  level  of  the  eye  (Z.  of  E.). 

g.  That  parallel  horizontal  edges  receding  to  the  left  appear  to  cojiverge  to  a  point  on 
the  level  of  the  eye  at  the  left  of  the  object ;  those  receding  to  the  right  appear  to 
converge  to  the  right  of  the  object.  These  points  are  called  respectively  Vanish- 
ing Point  I  {V.  F.  i)  and  Vanis hi  Jig  Point  2  {V.  P.  2}. 


L.ofE. 


10. 


ij. 


12. 


That  for  rectans^nlar  objects  standing  with  side  faces  turned  equally  away,  the 

vanishing  points  are  equidistant  from  the  object. 
That  the  farther  vertical  edges  appear  shorter  than  the  nearer,  and  should  be  so 

drawn. 
That  for  rectangtdar  objects  standing  with  side  faces  turned  unequally  away, 

V.  P.  I  and  V.  P.  2  arc  unequally  distant  from  the  object,  according  to  the 

angles  at  which  the  object  stands. 


V.P.L 


V.P.2. 


The  illustrations  of  the  appearance  of  the  group  of  objects  and  of  the  square 
prism  below  the  level  of  the  eye  exemplify  principles  1-8.  The  illustrations  given 
of  the  cube  turned  and  bt:lo\v  the  level  of  the  eye  are  an  exemplification  of  principles 
6-1 1.  These  principles  can  also  be  confirmed  and  impressed  by  the  study  of  square 
plinths  above  the  eye,  as  in  the  case  of  the  abacus  of  a  column.  The  illustrations 
of  these  principles  are  made  from  models,  as  the  exact  forms  of  the  models  show 
the  application  of  these  principles  more  clearly  than  irregular  objects  would  do. 
It  is  delightful  to  see  how  pupils  will  deduce  the  essential  laws  of  the  change  in  the 
appearance  of  objects  in  different  positions,  from  their  own  observation.  This 
deduction,  however,  should  not  be  forced,  but  should  come  as  a  natural  growth. 


14  INTRODUCTION. 


Rendering. 


Outline,  Light  and  Dark,  Light  and  Shade.  —  There  are  three  ways  of  carrying 
out  a  picture  with  pencil,  pen,  or  brush  in  monochrome  —  in  outline,  in  light  and  dark, 
in  light  and  shade.  In  outline,  as  has  been  said  above,  the  hnes  should  vary  accord- 
ing to  texture  and  importance  and  a  slight  expression  of  light  and  shade  may  also 
be  given. 

In  what  is  known  as  light  and  dark,  color  contrasts  and  values  are  shown  by 
means  of  masses  of  light  and  dark,  sometimes  in  two  tones,  sometimes  in  more. 
Examples  of  expression  of  color  and  of  pleasing  space  relations  by  light  and  dark 
will  be  found  all  through  the  drawing-books,  notably  in  the  illustrations  from  the 
Japanese  and  those  by  Arthur  W.  Dow. 

In  light  and  shade,  the  effect  of  sunlight  and  shadow  is  represented.  See  Light 
and  Shade,  page  i6.  Color  effects  shown  by  light  and  dark  and  the  effects  of  light 
and  shade  are  frequently  found  in  the  same  drawing. 

Blocking-in.  —  It  is  a  great  art  principle  to  look  for  the  mass  first,  whether  in 
form,  or  in  light  and  shade.  Every  exercise  in  Representation  should  tend  to  fix 
this  great  principle.  Blocking-in  —  that  is,  getting  the  general  shape  and  proportion 
in  the  quickest  and  simplest  manner  possible  —  is  one  of  the  means  by  which  atten- 
tion is  directed  first  to  the  mass,  the  object  as  a  whole,  rather  than  to  the  details  —  to 
the  group  as  a  whole,  rather  than  to  individual  objects  in  the  group.  Therefore  it 
is  well  to  block  in  an  object  or  a  group.  But  very  few  lines  should  be  used  ;  for  if 
every  change  in  direction  should  be  represented  by  a  line,  the  process  of  blocking-in 
would  become  that  of  studying  details.  See  Plate  I  and  also  the  illustration  on 
page  15. 

You  will  note  that  the  blocking-in  lines  sometimes  touch  the  outlines  of  the 
objects,  sometimes  cross  them,  and  sometimes  do  not  touch  them  at  all,  as  there 
may  sometimes  be  subordinate  objects  or  outlines,  that  do  not  affect  the  outer  Hrait 
of  the  group.  The  blocking-in  lines  may  be  continuous,  or  may  be  simply  indica- 
tions of  direction.  The  illustration,  page  15,  shows  how  a  few  lines  will  bring  out  the 
general  mass ;  a  few  more  have  been  added  to  bring  out  each  object  as  a  whole. 
The  special  points  in  blocking-in  are  proportion  of  the  mass,  shape  of  the  mass,  size 
suited  to  the  space.  There  is  no  rule  for  blocking-in  which  excludes  any  of  these 
conditions ;  any  of  these  ways  may  be  taken  which  will  help  to  express  the  general 
shape  of  the  mass.  Whatever  way  is  taken,  however,  blocking-in  lines  should  be 
very  light,  that  they  may  not  interfere  with  the  later  stages  of  the  drawing.  And 
there  should  not  be  a  feeling  that  they  must  be  absolutely  adhered  to ;  it  frequently 
happens  that  changes  are  found  necessary  as  the  drawing  progresses. 


PLATE    I- 


^^,(!S5HW«^^***''~"  f 


■SfUn^.  fllWLaa;_^Xi.i. 


Blocking-in. 


REPRESENTATION.  15 

Blocking-in  has  more  than  the  immediate  effect  of  getting  the  shape  of  the 
particular  thing  to  be  drawn.  It  induces  a  habit  of  mind  ;  it  leads  to  study  of  the  mass 
everywhere,  to  large  views,  to  looking  at  the  whole  before  the  parts,  beginning  first 
in  judgment  of  form  in  mass,  then  in  detail  of  a  group  of  forms,  continuing  this 
habit  in  judgment  of  actions  and  of  events. 


H 


Quality  of  Line.  —  Every  drawing  should  show  a  feeling  for  the  character  of 
the  material  of  the  object  drawn.  This  is  always  seen  in  what  is  called  artistic 
rendering.  Natural  objects  differ  from  manufactured  objects  in  substance  and 
texture,  and  they  have  varying  outlines.  The  wooden  models  are  exact  in  form 
and  outline  ;  therefore,  in  drawing  their  outlines,  a  more  definite  but  still  transparent 
line  should  be  used. 

Outlines  not  only  vary  in  direction,  but  are  more  decided  and  definite  in  some 
parts  than  in  others.  This  variation  in  direction  and  in  definiteness  is  expressive 
of  the  varying  forces  of  life  and  growth,  and  must  be  rendered  by  a  similarly  vary- 
ing line  in  the  drawing.  A  lemon,  being  somewhat  indefinite  in  outline,  on  account  of 
the  peculiar  texture  of  the  skin  which  holds  its  delicious  fragrance,  should  be  drawn 
with  a  line  varying  in  thickness  and  not  quite  continuous.  The  skin  of  the  apple  is 
smoother ;  this  will  need  a  somewhat  lighter  line  and  more  continuous  throughout 
than  the  line  for  the  lemon.  Remember  also  that  it  is  the  general  form  which 
should  be  expressed,  and  not  the  small  details. 

Table-Line.  —  In  order  to  show  that  an  object  or  group  is  resting  on  some- 
thing, and  thus  to  give  an  effect  of  rest  in  the  drawing,  what  is  called  a  table-line  is 
frequently  added.  This  line  represents  the  farther  edge  of  the  table  or  shelf  on 
which  the  object  rests.     Place  an  apple  on  a  book  slightly  below  the  level  of  the 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

eye,  and  observe  how  high  up  on  the  outhne  the  farther  edge  of  the  book  appears 
to  be.  This  will  help  you  in  drawing  the  table-line.  In  order  to  have  the  table-line 
properly  observed,  the  teacher  must  see  that  objects  are  not  placed  too  near  the 
farther  edge  nor  too  far  in  front  of  it.  In  the  former  case,  the  table-line  will  appear 
too  low,  and  as  if  the  object  were  in  danger  of  tumbling  off;  in  the  latter  case,  the 
table-line  will  appear  too  high,  and  as  if  the  object  were  surrounded  by  too  much 
space.  A  good  general  rule  is  to  place  the  object  so  that  the  farther  edge  of  the 
table  or  object  on  which  it  rests  will  appear  to  be  less  than  halfway  up  the  height  of 
the  object.  The  table-line  should  always  be  made  a  little  lighter  than  the  Une  of  the 
object,  to  express  distance  and  subordination. 

Rendering  of  a  Group.  —  Having  blocked  in  the  group,  the  next  thought  must 
be  how  to  finish  it  so  that  it  may  best  tell  its  story.  The  rendering  of  a  group  of 
objects  —  that  is,  the  quality  and  the  variety  of  line  used  —  should  be  such  as  to 
suggest  the  leading  ideas  of  a  group.  Therefore,  in  completing  any  drawing,  keep 
in  mind  the  whole  thought  which  is  to  be  expressed,  and  aim  to  express  as  far  as 
possible  by  the  rendering,  the  same  ideas  that  were  specially  considered  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  group. 

The  Principal  Object.  —  It  is  necessary  that  one  object  should  be  more  notice- 
able than  others,  in  order  to  have  the  eye  at  once  attracted.  The  principal  object 
in  a  picture  may  not  be  consciously  observed  first,  but  the  eye  finds  there  a  resting- 
place  ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  there  are  two  or  three  objects  equally  prominent,  the  eye 
is  distracted,  and  the  attention  wanders.  The  principal  object  should  be  drawn  in 
such  a  way  as  to  attract  the  eye  at  once. 

Secondary  Objects.  —  One  object  alone  is  not  so  interesting  as  a  group  of 
objects ;  for  an  agreeable  element  of  contrast  is  added  by  means  of  the  relation  of 
other  objects  to  the  principal  object.  As  they  are  subordinate  to  the  principal 
object,  they  should  be  rendered  by  fines  not  as  strong  and  not  as  definite  as  those 
of  ttie  principal  object. 

Distance.  —  The  effect  of  distance  into  the  picture,  obtained  by  the  placing  of 
some  of  the  objects  farther  back  than  others,  must  be  expressed  in  the  rendering 
by  making  the  lines  for  the  farther  objects  somewhat  lighter  and  less  definite  than 
those  of  the  principal  and  nearer  objects.  By  the  addition  of  a  background,  there 
will  be  in  such  an  arrangement,  foreground,  middle  distance,  background. 

Light  and  Shade.  —  In  addition  to  the  expression  of  distance,  an  emphasis 
on  the  side  of  the  objects  opposite  the  light,  to  suggest  shade,  will  also  add  to  the 
effect.  If  the  light  comes  from  the  left, —  as  it  should  in  every  schoolroom,  —  the 
right  side  of  the  objects  would  be  in  shade,  and  hence  the  right  side  should  be 
emphasized.     But  the  light  comes  from  above  also,  so  that  the  lower  part  may  also 


REPRESENTATION.  17 

be  strengthened.  These  dark  lines  suggest,  shade,  but  they  also  suggest  light ;  for 
there  would  be  neither  shade  nor  shadow  were  it  not  for  the  light.  So  the  touches 
for  shade  really  introduce  the  thought  of  light  into  the  group. 

Still  further  the  shade  and  shadow  may  be  expressed  by  hnes,  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  shade  and  shadow,  as  illustrated  in  the  Drawing-Books,  and  on 
Plates  II  and  III. 

Look  at  any  object  placed  in  the  light ;  the  part  toward  the  light  is  of  a 
different  tone  from  the  part  away  from  the  light  and  the  object  casts  a  shadow. 
We  have,  then,  light  on  the  part  toward  the  light,  shade  on  the  part  away  from  the 
light,  and  the  shadow  cast  by  the  object — three  distinct  conditions  as  regards  the 
Hght.  These  conditions,  generally  included  under  the  term  light  and  shade,  are  to 
be  studied  in  this  exercise. 

When  the  light  comes  but  from  one  part  of  the  room,  the  light  on  the  object 
is  strong,  the  shade  and  shadow  are  well  defined.  If  light  comes  from  two  or  more 
directions,  there  will  be  cross  lights,  which  will  cause  perhaps  two  or  three  shadows 
mingling  with  each  other,  and  render  the  limits  of  shade  and  shadow  vague.  In 
any  elementary  study  of  light  and  shade,  therefore,  the  light  should  be  arranged  as  far 
as  possible  to  fall  in  one  direction. 

The  best  effects  can  be  obtained  in  a  schoolroom  where  the  light  comes  in 
from  the  side  alone. ^  If  the  room  is  lighted  from  one  side  and  the  back,  shut  off 
the  light  from  the  back  and  from  all  but  one  or  two  windows  at  the  side.  If  the 
lower  part  of  these  windows  can  be  screened,  it  will  be  better.  In  the  case  of  cross 
lights,  only  the  strongest  shades  and  shadows  should  be  studied. 

Study  of  Effects.  —  Even  more  care  is  necessary  in  the  arrangement  and  plac- 
ing of  objects  for  study  of  light  and  shade  effects  than  for  mere  outline  drawing. 
A  group  of  two  or  more  models  affords  more  variety  and  contrast  than  if  but  one 
model  is  taken.  Suppose  the  sphere  and  cylinder  to  be  chosen.  Lead  the  pupils 
to  discover  that  the  sphere  shghtly  in  front  of  the  cylinder  makes  a  more  agreeable 
arrangement  than  beside  or  behind  the  cylinder.  To  keep  the  spheres  stationary, 
place  them  on  tiny  brass  or  rubber  rings,  which  may  be  bought  by  the  box,  and 
distributed  and  collected  with  the  models. 

If  the  teacher,  in  preparing  for  this  lesson,  will  work  at  a  pupil's  desk,  any 
peculiarities  in  the  situation  will  become  apparent.  Observe  the  general  form  of 
the  whole  group  —  the  proportion  of  one  model  to  the  other.  Sketch  lightly,  but 
carefully,  the  cylinder  and  sphere.     Half  close  the  eyes,  and  look  carefully  at  the 


1  Where  position  can  be  chosen,  it  is  well  to  place  the  objects  so  that  the  light  comes  from  the  left 
and  above,  for  elementary  work.     The  light  on  the  drawing  will  not  then  be  obstructed  by  the  hand. 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

shade  upon  the  models  and  the  shadows  cast  by  each  model  upon  the  paper.  You 
will  see  what  artists  call  the  breadth  of  light  and  the  breadth  of  shade  on  the  models 

—  that  is  to  say,  the  light  side  as  a  whole,  and  the  dark  side  as  a  whole.  Still 
"  looking  through  the  eyelashes,"  see  how  far  the  breadth  of  shade  extends  upon  the 
cylinder,  upon  the  sphere  —  the  shape  of  the  shade.  See  the  illustration  below. 
With  a  line  so  faint  that  it  will  not  be  observed  when  the  shade  is  expressed,  sketch 
on  the  drawing  of  the  cylinder,  the  blocking-in  of  the  limit  or  outline  of  the  shade 

—  the  same  upon  the  sphere.  Study  the  cast  shadows  most  carefully  as  to  general 
shape  —  they   often   fall  in   a   most   unexpected   way.     The    foreshortening   on   a 


-— rti-T-v-  *--t^nr:-,- 


horizontal  surface  must  not  be  forgotten,  and  the  absolute  change  of  general  direc- 
tion when  continued  on  a  vertical  surface.  Notice  the  shape  of  the  cast  shadow  of 
the  cylinder,  of  the  sphere,  and  that  the  shadow  of  the  sphere  may  run  up  on  the 
cylinder.  Block  in  very  lightly  the  outlines  of  the  shadows  wherever  they  fall.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  shades  and  shadows  will  be  different  for  each  pupil. 
Each  one  must  study  for  himself.  Those  in  the  front  seats  may  get  the  light  a 
Uttle  over  the  shoulder,  so  that  their  shades  and  shadows  will  not  be  Hke  those  for 
whom  the  light  falls  more  directly. 

Now  give  careful  study  to  the  relative  tones  of  the  light,  shade,  and  cast  shadow. 
Which  is  lightest  ?     Which  is  darkest  ?     Which  is  the  middle  tone  ?     Cast  shadows 


REP  EE  SEN  TA  TION.  1 9 

are  always  slightly  darker  than  the  shade  upon  objects.  Look  at  various  objects 
upon  which  the  light  falls  from  one  direction  for  examples. 

Expression  of  Shade  and  Shadow.  —  Keep  at  first  to  simple  breadth  of  light, 
breadth  of  shade,  and  cast  shadow.  Express  these  planes  by  drawing  simply,  first 
blocking-in  as  on  page  i8  and  then  showing  planes  of  shade  as  in  Fig.  i,  Plate  11. 

After  this  is  attained,  a  closer  study  of  effects  —  of  the  contrasts  and  relations 
of  light  and  shade  —  of  what  are  known  as  values,  as  on  Plate  II,  may  be  under- 
taken. Where  is  the  deepest  tone  of  shade  ?  Express  this,  studying  the  method 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  Plate  II.  As  the  study  progresses,  the  tender  gradation  and  flow 
of  shade  will  become  more  and  more  visible,  and  the  beautiful  relations  of  light  and 
dark  will  appear  more  and  more.  Figs,  i  and  2,  Plate  III,  show  how  different 
planes  and  values  are  expressed.  Study  all  of  these  illustrations,  and  observe  the 
different  handling  or  technique.  Remember  that  each  medium  used  in  drawing 
should  be  handled  in  its  own  way.  It  is  not  well  to  work  with  the  pencil  for  a 
scumbled  effect  similar  to  charcoal,  —  the  touches  of  the  pencil  should  be  definite 
and  sure,  but  not  mechanical.  The  methods  illustrated  here  are  not  to  be  taken  as 
rules  given,  but  as  suggestions  and  helps.  The  blocked-in  method,  keeping  planes 
of  light  and  shade  according  to  mass,  is  very  good  for  beginners.  Notice  that  there 
is  a  difference  between  a  drawing  merely  suggesting  light  and  shade  by  emphasis, 
and  one  in  which  light  and  shade  is  studied  for  relations  and  values. 

Notice  that  in  all  the  illustrations  the  lines  are  parallel  and  close  enough  to 
merge  a  little,  and  not  close  enough  to  cover  the  surface  of  the  paper;  that  in  the 
illustrations,  Figs,  i  and  2,  Plate  II,  showing  breadth  of  light  and  shade,  or  planes 
of  light  and  shade,  the  lines  are  oblique,  except  on  a  horizontal  surface.  This  direc- 
tion is  preferred  because  it  seems  the  nearest  to  neutrality ;  that  in  the  illustrations 
showing  more  of  values.  Figs,  i  and  2,  Plate  III,  the  direction  of  the  surface  is 
expressed  by  hues,  straight  lines  being  used  for  plane  faces  and  curved  lines  for 
rounding  faces ;  that  when  a  shadow  falls  upon  a  horizontal  surface  it  is  expressed 
by  horizontal  lines,  and  that  if  a  part  of  the  same  shadow  falls  upon  a  vertical  face 
or  surface,  the  lines  expressing  the  shadow  are  vertical.  These  suggestions  as  to 
direction  of  line  must  not,  however,  be  considered  as  absolute  or  prescriptive. 

The  strengthening  of  the  outline  away  from  the  light  that  is  practised  in  outline 
drawing  is  omitted  in  light  and  shade  drawing.  The  limit  of  the  model  is  expressed 
by  the  shade.    Always  trust  as  far  as  possible  to  the  mass  of  shade  to  define  the  form. 

Variety. — The  element  of  variety  will  appear  in  the  rendering  already  sug- 
gested. In  addition  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  texture  of  the  line  should  vary 
according  to  the  character  of  the  object.  If  the  object  is  manufactured,  the  edges 
and  profiles  will  be  sharper  and  more  even  than  those  of  a  natural  object.     The 


20  INTIiODUCTION. 

edges  of  the  models  are  well  defined.  The  outline  of  fruit  shows  yielding  irregu- 
larity ;  the  outline  of  leaves  and  flowers  is  tender  and  delicate.  These  qualities 
should  be  shown  in  the  line. 

Unity.  — The  effect  of  unity  produced  by  the  arrangement  of  the  objects  can 
be  increased  in  the  rendering  by  putting  the  emphasis  on  the  principal  object,  and 
keeping  the  others  in  their  proper  relation.  This  can  be  done  not  only  by  keeping 
the  secondary  objects  more  subdued  in  line  than  the  principal  objects,  but  also  by 
a  greater  omission  of  detail. 

Repose.  —  This  is  one  of  the  highest  quahties  in  pictorial  composition,  but 
some  of  its  elements  may  be  brought  out  even  in  early  work.  The  effect  of  repose 
is  produced  by  the  proper  and  restful  arrangement  of  objects.  This  effect  will  be 
increased  in  the  rendering  if  the  transitions  from  light  to  dark,  from  definite  to 
indefinite,  are  gradual  and  not  violent.  The  table-hne  is  a  very  necessary,  though 
minor,  element  of  repose,  as  it  gives  the  idea  of  support.  It  should  be  in  lighter 
line  than  the  group. 

Values.  —  The  proper  relation  of  objects  in  regard  to  their  importance  in  the 
group  or  picture  is  expressed  by  what  are  known  as  values.  The  rendering  must 
be  such  that  it  will  show  the  relative  importance  of  the  parts  of  a  group  or  a  picture 
/ — that  is  to  say,  the  values.  In  artistic  rendering  of  outline,  the  principal  and  the 
secondary  objects,  the  nearer  and  the  farther  objects,  the  light  and  the  shade,  are 
all  made  manifest  by  the  difference  in  quality  and  emphasis  of  hue.  The  principal 
object  has  the  strongest  emphasis  or  accentuation,  and  all  other  objects  receive  less 
in  proportion  to  their  importance.  This  inust  be  carefully  borne  in  mind ;  for  an 
eager  worker  often  forgets  the  need  for  expressing  the  relation  between  the  princi- 
pal and  the  subordinate  objects,  and  emphasizes  equally  the  shade  on  all,  ignoring 
values,  and  producing  a  staring  and  "  spotty  "  effect,  quite  different  from  that  pro- 
duced when  a  due  regard  is  paid  to  subordination  of  the  less  important,  and  appre- 
ciation of  the  more  important,  parts.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  that 
in  the  rendering  of  secondary  objects,  strong  contrasts  should  be  avoided;  the 
effects  of  the  secondary  objects  as  a  whole  should  be  subdued. 

In  the  treatment  of  light  and  shade  and  shadow,  the  study  of  values  can  be 
carried  much  farther,  of  course,  than  in  outline,  as  in  Plates  11  and  III ;  and  the 
values  can  be  most  subtilely  expressed. 

When  a  picture  is  worked  up  toward  full  values,  there  will  appear  foregtvund, 
middle  distance,  background.  These  may  be  carried  out  even  in  a  simple  group  — 
the  principal  object  being  in  the  foreground,  the  secondary  objects  being  in  middle 
distance,  the  background  being  added  as  in  Fig.  2,  Plate  III ;  see  also  Plate  II. 
In  rendering,  the  foreground  should  have  the  stronger,  clearer  touches,  the  middle 


PLATE    II 


f'h:- 


Groups  of  Models. 


REPRESENTATION.  21 

distance  the  more  subdued  touches,  and  the  background  should  be  entirely  subor- 
dinate, fainter  and  less  defined  than  any  other  part  of  the  picture.  Remember, 
however,  that  the  background  should  be  drawn  with  careful  control,  and  with  a  con- 
sideration of  its  purpose.  Herein  lies  the  lesson  of  restraint,  as  valuable  in  life  as 
in  art. 

Expression  of  Feeling.  —  In  representing  natural  objects,  a  greater  variety  of 
direction  must  be  distinguished  and  represented  than  with  models.  The  teacher  is 
not  to  analyze  the  rendering  of  printed  reproductions  further  than  to  ask  the  pupils 
to  note  the  expression  of  masses,  the  direction  of  the  several  lines,  and  how  they 
adapt  themselves  to  the  surface  to  be  suggested. 

All  good  rendering  of  natural  forms  requires  elimination  on  the  part  of  the 
artist  or  worker.  Skill  and  genius  are  shown  in  selecting  what  to  depict  as  convey- 
ing a  ch^acteristic  impression  of  the  object,  and  this  involves  an  understanding  of 
what  to  omit.  This  selection  is  again  largely  a  matter  of  individual  feehng,  and  it 
is  here  that  there  is  infinite  opportunity  for  independent  expression. 

As  the  artist  feels  for  the  surface  of  his  object,  he  unconsciously  adapts  his  lines  to 
expressing  this  feeling.  Feeling  counts  for  more  than  physical  seeing  in  all 
nature  work. 

Remember  all  artistic  rendering  of  nature  is  a  translation,  not  an  imitation  — 
an  imitation  of  nature  is  always  imperfect  and  unsatisfactory ;  in  seeking  for  realistic 
details  the  spirit  is  sacrificed.  The  truth  of  realism  must  always  be  partial  and  one- 
sided if  it  starts  on  the  basis  that  the  physical  senses  are  the  measure  of  the  human 
soul.  The  truth  of  idealism  is  the  all-embracing  truth  of  art,  and  that  to  which  it 
is  consecrated. 

Copying  Good  Examples.  —  The  work  in  Representation  should  not  be  con- 
fined to  drawing  from  models  and  objects  only ;  there  should  be  good  and  careful 
study  through  copying  good  examples.  The  copying  should  not  be  superficial  and 
imitative,  but  should  be  rather  an  endeavor  to  enter  into  and  represent  the  feeling 
of  the  one  who  drew  the  example.  True  copying  is  endeavoring  to  see  and  to 
draw  what  the  eyes  of  another  and  a  greater  has  seen  as  shown  through  his  repre- 
sentation ;  drawing  from  models  and  objects  is  seeing  through  one's  own  eyes.  To 
the  advantage  of  personal  experience  in  any  study  there  should  always  be  added  the 
advantage  of  the  richness  of  others'  experience.  The  work  in  Representation  should 
be  presented  by  the  teacher  in  this  spirit,  developing  in  the  pupils,  not  merely  reliance 
in  their  own  ability  to  see  and  to  draw,  but  also  an  appreciation  and  admiration 
for  what  has  been  done  by  others,  with  a  desire  to  attain  through  earnest  study 
to  real  art  expression. 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

Remember  that  a  drawing  may  be  absolutely  correct  as  far  as  giving  the  prin- 
ciples governing  the  appearance  of  an  object  or  group  or  scene  is  concerned,  and 
yet  wholly  without  what  is  known  in  art  as  expression.  Lead  your  pupils  through 
the  study  and  sympathetic  drawing  of  good  examples,  through  a  store  of  associa- 
tions in  hterature  and  in  life,  through  a  spirit  of  recognition  and  appreciation,  to  a 
conscious  feeling  for  the  beautiful,  and  a  desire  for  its  expression  in  drawing. 


Decoration;  or,  Drawing  as  Applied  in  Ornament. 

Decoration  is  the  science  and  art  of  producing  beauty  in  ornament.  Orna- 
ment, the  product  of  purely  decorative  art,  is  always  employed  to  beautify  objects 
created  for  some  purpose,  independent  of  their  decoration.  It  is  truly  an  expres- 
sion of  love  for  the  object  —  a  desire  to  make  it  beautiful.  It  produces  its  legiti- 
mate effect  when,  without  concentration  upon  itself,  it  makes  the  object  to  which 
it  is  applied  more  pleasing  than  if  unadorned. 

Lead  pupils  during  their  study  of  ornament  to  the  discovery  of  the  principles 
which  have  been  given  and  to  the  use  of  them  in  decorative  design.  Decorative 
design  is  closely  akin,  in  many  ways,  to  music  :  it  has  rhythm  and  accent  through 
repetition,  melody  through  curvature  and  color,  and  harmony  through  proportion 
and  relation  of  parts  to  make  a  "  perfect  whole."  It  will  not  be  difficult  for  a 
teacher  to  make  these  analogies  apparent.  All  art  is  one,  whether  of  word,  form, 
sound,  or  color. 

Creative  Power. — The  subject  of  Decoration  opens  a  wide  field  for  creative 
power  —  for  the  expression  of  the  individual.  Gradually  the  pupil  should  be  led 
through  sequential  exercises  involving  modes  of  arrangement,  space  relations,  and 
distributions  as  well  as  the  study  of  fine  examples  of  ornament,  to  the  expression  of 
his  own  ideas  of  the  beautiful  in  terms  of  art. 

Mere  acquisition,  whether  of  money,  knowledge,  culture,  or  sesthetics,  is  selfish  ^ 
and  all  selfishness  is  barren.  Whatever  the  subject  may  be  in  education,  it  should 
aim  to  ultimate  in  productive  power  through  creative  activity. 

In  the  subject  of  Representation,  the  aim  is  to  reach  this  end  not  only  through 
practice  in  drawing  the  appearance  of  objects  and  study  for  its  principles,  but  also 
through  Representative  Design  or  pictorial  composition.  So  in  the  subject  of  Deco- 
ration, aim  to  increase  the  productive  power  of  the  pupils  by  leading  them  to  a 
realizing  sense  of  the  need  for  architecture  and  ornament  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  hfe  at  the  present  day.     This  can  be  done  by  giving  some  very  simple  problems 


DECORATION.  2S 

in  planning  a  room,  in  considering  its  coloring,  its  decoration  and  furnishings,  and 
also  in  designing  oblongs  of  good  proportion,  corresponding  to  the  shape  of  one 
external  face  of  a  building.  Within  these  oblongs  may  be  arranged  other  oblongs, 
corresponding  to  openings  for  doors  and  windows  of  good  proportion  in  themselves 
and  bearing  the  proper  relationship  to  each  other  and  to  the  external  oblongs.  Such 
problems  will  lead  to  the  consideration  of  what  is  fitting  and  beautiful  in  buildings, 
as  well  as  in  details,  and  will  bring  up  inquiry  as  to  the  general  principles  of  good  taste. 

As  a  means  of  answering  this  inquiry,  lead  pupils  to  study  fine  historic  architec- 
ture and  ornament  (that  which  has  been  accepted  as  exemplifying  the  beautiful  in 
form  and  proportion),  to  see  how  the  principles  which  underUe  all  design  and  which 
make  for  the  production  of  the  beautiful  have  been  applied. 

The  study  of  historic  architecture  and  ornament  may  be  made  vital  by  first 
considering  the  conditions  under  which  it  was  produced,  and  by  indicating  how  the 
architecture  and  ornament  were  responsive  to  the  conditions.  Such  study  will  lead 
the  pupils  to  an  appreciation  of  fine  types  of  ornament  and  will  cultivate  their  aes- 
thetic judgment,  inspiring  them  to  apply  the  principles  of  beauty  in  modern  problems. 

Thus  creative  activity,  stimulated  and  enriched  by  the  study  of  the  beautiful  in 
ornament,  will  ultimate  in  productive  power. 

Subordination.  —  Fitness  to  its  purpose  is  the  underlying  principle  —  the  very 
corner-stone  of  all  good  ornament.  From  this  principle  of  fitness  for  its  purpose 
there  arises  the  fundamental  law  of  ornament  —  subordination.  This  law  requires 
THAT  ALL  ORNAMENT  SHALL  BE  MODEST  AND  MODERATE.  Strong  Contrasts  and  striking 
effects  violate  it.  Illustrations  of  this  requirement  in  matters  of  good  taste  in  general 
are  familiar  to  all.  A  loud  voice  in  conversation  is  not  excusable  ;  a  forward,  self- 
asserting  manner  is  a  mark  of  ill-breeding ;  gaudy  colors  in  dress  are  shunned ; 
showiness,  or  any  other  attempt  to  attract  attention,  is  condemned.  This  require- 
ment holds  good  in  all  ornament,  whether  architectural,  domestic,  or  personal.  He 
is  not  well  dressed  whose  dress  is  conspicuous ;  that  house  is  not  well  furnished 
where  the  furniture  is  obtrusive ;  that  building  is  not  well  ornamented  whose  deco- 
ration is  not  subordinate  to  the  idea  of  the  building. 

Sources  of  Ornament.  —  Ornament  has  two  sources  —  Nature  and  Geometry. 
In  the  minds  of  many  these  are  widely  separated.  Geometry  is  too  often  consid- 
ered as  simply  a  treatise  on  an  assemblage  of  figures  and  forms  which  have  no 
particular  meaning  except  as  a  basis  for  mathematical  study.  Such  a  view  is  most 
inadequate  ;  for  geometry  is  really  the  study  of  ideal  and  typical  forms,  which  while 
not  discoverable  in  a  perfect  state  in  nature,  are  deduced  by  man  from  a  study  ol 
nature. 


24  INTR  on  UCTION. 

"  Above,  below,  in  sky  and  sod, 
In  leaf  and  spar,  in  star  and  man^ 
Well  might  the  wise  Athenian  scan 
The  geometric  signs  of  God, 
The  measured  order  of  his  plan." 

—  John  G.  VVhittier. 

Nature  presents  no  ideal  forms :  these  are  the  result  of  man's  thought  led  by 
nature.  The  forms  of  geometry  are  ideals  conceived  by  man  in  "  Thought's  inte- 
rior sphere,"  as  archetypes  of  nature  ;  they  are  the  forms  toward  which  nature  in 
evolution  is  constantly  tending.  Nature  and  geometry  are,  then,  but  different 
manifestations  of  the  divine  law.  A  thoughtful  consideration  of  nature  will  show 
geometric  plans  and  forms,  and  modes  of  arrangement,  in  her  handiwork.  Order, 
symmetry,  and  proportion  are  all  exemplified  in  nature  in  varying  degrees. 

Materials  of  Ornament.  —  The  materials  of  ornament  are  :  — 

1.  Geometric  plans,  enclosing  figures  and  units. 

2.  Conventionalized  units  derived  from  natural  forms  as  motives. 

3.  Historic  ornament. 

But,  in  order  to  use  these  materials  effectively,  't  is  necessary  to  study :  — 

a.    Geometric  construction  and  symmetric  arrangement. 
d.    The  proper  use  of  plant  forms  as  motives. 
c.    Well-selected  examples  of  historic  ornament. 

Symmetric  Arrangement.  —  The  principal  forms  of  arrangement  (all  requir- 
ing more  or  less  of  geometric  construction)  are,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on 
page  25  — 

1 .  A  surface  design,  to  cover  a  surface,  as  in  wall-papers,  carpets,  drapery,  and  tex- 

tiles in  general. 

2.  A  border,  to  limit  a  surface  or  a  surface-covering. 

3.  A  single  arrangement,  complete  in  itself,  as  in  a  bilateral  unit,  as  the  lotus  and 

the  fleur-de-lis,  or  as  in  a  rosette  or  centre. 

The  parts  of  a  design  commort  to  the  three  are  :  — 

a.  The  enclosing  figure. 

b.  The  geometric  plan,  which  embraces  not  only  the  general  geometric  outline,  but 

also  the  lines  and  divisions  required  by  order  and  symmetry  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  design,  —  axes  of  symmetry  and  field  lines. 

c.  The  units  or  motives,  which  are  repeated  in  making  the  design. 

d.  The  ornament  itself,  or  the  filling. 
■e.  The  background  or  field. 


DECORATION. 


25 


Fig.   I. 


Fig.  2.  Fig.  3. 

SURFACE   COVERINGS. 


Fig.  4. 


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1^ 

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^^^^?\^R^^^^^?^^^^^T^^^c^'^?^^\8 

voo3oo3o3o3S3S 

Vw.. 


Fig. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  14, 


Fig.  15.  Fig    16.  Fig.  17.  Fig.  iS 

FIGURES   COMPLETE   IN   THEMSELVES. 


Fig.  tg. 


26  INTR  OB  UCTION. 

Nature  in  Ornament.  —  The  laws  of  growth,  which  are  recognized  and  recogniz- 
able in  all  good  ornament,  are  derived  from  the  laws  of  growth  in  nature.  It  would 
be  a  mistake,  however,  to  conclude  from  what  has  been  said  that  a  pictorial  imita- 
tion of  nature  is  good  in  ornament.  A  pictorial  imitation  of  nature  represents  the 
accidents  of  growth.  Order,  regularity,  and  symmetry  are  the  normal  laws  of  growth, 
while  the  irregular  is  accidental.  This  idea  is  developed  in  the  treatment  of  conven- 
tionalization. 

"  Flowers  or  other  natural  objects  should  not  be  used  as  ornaments,  but  conventional 
representations  founded  upon  them,  sufficiently  suggestive  to  convey  the  intended  image  to 
the  mind,  without  destroying  the  unity  of  the  object  they  are  employed  to  decorate.  C/nz- 
ver sally  obeyed  in  the  best  periods  of  art;  equally  violated  when  art  declines.'''' 

"In  all  the  best  periods  of  art,  all  ornament  was  rather  based  upon  an  observation  of 
the  principles  which  regulate  the  arrangements  of  form  in  nature  than  on  an  attempt  to 
imitate  the  absolute  forms  of  those  works,  and  wherever  this  limit  was  exceeded  in  any  art 
it  was  one  of  the  strongest  symptoms  of  decline." 

—  Owen  Jones,  Grammar  of  Ortiament. 

"We  ov\e  the  beauty  of  nature  the  full  tribute  of  our  respectful  appreciation,  but  we 
should  never  degrade  her  loveliness  by  putting  it  to  unworthy  service.  The  picture-painter 
throws  his  whole  power  into  the  attempt  to  reproduce  natural  truth  ;  but  the  designer,  feel- 
ing the  limitations  of  his  materials,  and  the  purpose  to  which  his  work  must  be  applied, 
takes  a  different  view,  not  because  he  appreciates  nature  less,  but  because  appreciating  it  so 
much  he  cannot  bring  himself  to  do  it  discredit  by  inadequate  representation. 

"We  need  scarcely  say  that  any  one  attempting  naturalistic  work  should  have  a 
good  working  knowledge  of  plant-structure,  and  even  if  he  would  hesitate  to  call  himself  a 
botanist,  should  be  well  acquainted  with  the  leading  laws  of  plant  growth.  A  wild-rose 
spray,  in  all  its  picturesque  beauty,  is  as  much  constructed  according  to  law  as  the  designer 
himself;  the  spiral  growth  of  its  foliage,  and  the  beautiful  foreshortening,  therefore,  of  the 
parts  that  result  ffom  this  rigid  law,  is  as  marked  as  any  other  law  of  nature ;  and  it  is 
no  more  permissible  to  add  a  sixth  to  the  ring  of  five  fragrant  petals  in  each  of  its  beautiful 
flowers  than  to  consider  it  immaterial  whether  we  put  four,  five,  or  six  toes  to  the  human 
foot."  — F.  Edward  Hulme,  Birth  and  Development  of  Orna-fient. 

"  This  must  be  accomplished  not  by  the  mere  imitative  rendering  of  flowers  and  foli- 
age, which  is  a  means  of  study,  but  not  the  end;  the  ornamentist  must  be  a  much  deeper 
student,  if  he  would  found  a  new  style.  If  he  seeks  out  the  mode  of  development  of  vege- 
table growth,  he  will  find  that  regularity  and  symmetry  are  the  normal  laws,  while  all  that 
is  irregular  is  accidental  and  extraneous." 

—  Richard  Redgrave,  Manual  of  Design. 


DECORATION.  27 

"■  The  imitation  of  natural  objects  for  merely  ornamental  purposes  usually  disagrees 
both  with  the  materials  used  and  the  place  where  they  are  introduced.  It  is  also  an  indica- 
tion of  poverty  of  invention,  and  a  deficiency  of  taste  for  design.  In  carpets,  where  roses 
and  other  flowers  are  figured,  the  very  best  rose  is  always  unlike  the  reality,  while  the 
imagination  is  diverted  from  the  general  eiTect  by  the  comparison  of  this  imperfect  copy 
with  the  natural  flower.  To  obtain  ideas  for  ornamental  art,  nature  should  be  carefully 
studied  and  the  beauties  she  presents  should  be  fully  understood,  but  she  should  not  be 
directly  copied  in  an  unsuitable  material." 

—  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  On  Color  and  Taste. 

"  There  can  be  no  question  that  the  motive  of  ornament  is  not  the  presentation  cf 
natural  images  to  the  mind,  but  the  rendering  the  object  ornamented  as  agreeable  as  possible 
to  it,  and  therefore  the  details  of  decoration  should  have  no  independent  character  of  their 
own,  but  be  kept  purely  subservient  to  beauty  of  effect. 

"  The  designer  must  ever  remember  that  the  effect  of  the  whole  should  never  be  in- 
terfered with  by  any  partial  attraction  of  the  details." 

—  R.  N.  WORNUM,  Analysis  of  Orna))ient. 

"  Experience  proves  that  the  fitting  opportunity  for  realistic  ornament  very  seldom 
occurs.  It  is  for  the  most  part  contrary  to  the  purpose  or  position  of  the  object,  ill 
adapted  to  the  material  and  the  method  of  working  it,  and  most  especially  it  is  calculated 
to  draw  undue  attention  to  the  object,  or,  which  is  worse,  to  itself.  A  more  subdued  and 
reticent  and  altogether  simpler  style  of  design  is  almost  invariably  found  to  be  advisable, 
either  in  the  shape  of  pure  ornament  or  in  some  adaptation  of  natural  forms." 

—  Lewis  F.  Day,  Some  Principles  of  Every-day  Art. 

"  The  right  method  of  studying  nature  does  not  consist  in  merely  gathering  her  facts 
and  applying  them  indiscriminately  to  any  object  as  decoration,  but  in  the  endeavor  to 
understand  the  principles  upon  which  nature  works,  so  that  we  may  use  her  endless  treas- 
ures with  artistic  wisdom.  Moreover,  by  adopting  this  mode  of  studying  nature  we  shall 
find  that  all  the  records  of  ancient  art  will  have  a  new  meaning  for  us." 

—  Frank  G.  Jackson,  Lessons  on  Decorative  Design. 

"  Ornament  should  be  natural ;  that  is  to  say,  should  in  some  degree  express  or  adopt 
the  beauty  of  natural  objects.  Observe,  it  does  not  hence  follow  that  it  should  be  an  exact 
imitation  of,  or  endeavor  in  a.iy  wise  to  supersede,  God's  work.  It  may  consist  only  in  a 
part  adoption  of,  and  compliance  with,  the  usual  forms  of  natural  things,  without  at  al 
going  to  the  point  of  imitation  ;  and  it  is  possible  that  the  point  of  imitation  may  be  closely 
reached  by  ornaments  which,  nevertheless,  are  entirely  unfit  for  their  place,  and  are  the 
signs  only  of  a  degraded  ambition  and  an  ignorant  dexterity.  Bad  decorators  err  as  easily 
on  the  side  of  imitating  nature  as  of  forgetting  her,  and  the  question  of  the  exact  degree  in 
which  imitation  should  be  attempted  under  given  circumstances  is  one  of  the  most  subtle 
and  difficult  in  the  whole  range  of  criticism." 

—  John  Ruskin,  Ttw  Paths. 


o^ 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

Idealization.  —  The  subject  of  conventionalization  is  frequently  misunderstood. 
Some,  having  a  totally  wrong  impression  of  conventionaUzation,  think  of  it  only  as  a 
means  of  taking  all  the  hfe  and  grace  out  of  a  leaf  or  a  flower,  and  reducing  it  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  the  hard  lines  of  a  geometric  figure.  This  is  a  wholly  wrong 
conception.  True  conventionalization  is  idealization ;  it  searches  for  the  life  and 
the  marvellous  manifestations  of  growth  in  the  leaf  or  flower.  Natural  leaves  are 
more  or  less  unsymmetric ;  a  leaf  type  would  usually  be  symmetric ;  idealization 
rejects  the  occasional  irregularity,  and  accepts  the  beauty  of  symmetry  in  the  type 
form.  Idealization  seeks  in  the  natural  leaf  for  the  beauty  of  symmetry,  the  beauty 
of  general  form,  the  beauty  of  radiation,  —  or,  as  it  might  be  phrased,  the  beauty  of 
stability,  —  the  beauty  of  proportion,  the  beauty  of  general  curvature,  and  renders 
them  in  the  ideahzed  leaf.  Every  line  of  the  conventionalized  or  ideahzed  leaf  can 
be  traced  as  typical  of  the  natural  leaf. 

Pupils  should  be  led  to  seek  for  type  forms  of  natural  leaves  by  comparing 
many  leaves  of  one  kind,  and  to  discover  and  express  the  peculiar  beauty  of  each 
type  form.     This  will  be  true  conventionalization. 

The  purpose  is  entirely  distinct  from  that  of  botanic  study.  In  botanic  study, 
the  various  parts  and  organs  are  studied  with  minuteness,  and  all  the  wonderful 
structure  is  revealed.  In  studying  a  flower  for  decorative  purposes,  the  details  are 
not  taken  up,  unless  for  a  special  end ;  but  the  general  plan  as  to  form  is  studied, 
and  is  rendered  with  faithfulness  to  the  type  form,  and  not  to  the  individual. 

Lead  pupils  as  deeply  as  possible  into,  the  study  of  nature,  in  order  that  they 
may  see  for  themselves  the  spit-it  of  the  plant  which  they  are  studying,  as  well  as  the 
more  formal  matter  of  arrangement.  Then  let  them  idealize  plant  forms  for  use  in 
ornament,  by  keeping  the  characteristics  of  growth,  curvature,  and  proportion,  while 
simplifying  outlines  and  omitting  details. 

Historic  Ornament.  —  In  the  past,  many  nations  have  produced  certain  orna- 
ment so  repeatedly  that  the  ornament  has  become  characteristic  of  those  nations. 
As  the  account  of  what  nations  have  done  is  called  history,  so  the  ornament  pro- 
duced by  nations  is  called  historic  ornament.  Different  nations  have  developed 
different  kinds  of  ornament ;  each  kind,  however,  has  a  character  or  style  of  its  own, 
hence  styles  of  ornament  are  spoken  of.  The  great  historic  styles  are  :  the  Egyp- 
tian, Greek,  and  Roman,  —  the  ancient;  the  Byzantine,  Romanesque,  Saracenic, 
and  Gothic,  —  the  middle  age  ;  and  the  Renaissance,  which  may  be  called  the 
modern.  Among  the  ancient  styles,  the  Assyrian  and  Persian  are  ranked  as  second- 
ary, but  they  are  coming  more  and  more  into  prominence  as  new  discoveries  are 
made.  The  Persian,  Indian,  Chinese,  and  Japanese  are  called  the  Oriental  styles. 
All  of  these  would  be  taken  up  in  a  more  advanced  study  of  historic  ornament. 


DECORATION. 


29 


The  study  of  special  styles  is  begun  in  Book  7,  and  pursued  in  the  order  given  above. 
This  will  lead  to  an  appreciation  of  the  characteristics  of  each  style  as  well  as  of  the 
influences  which  formed  the  style.  As  the  study  progresses,  the  interrelation  of  these 
styles  will  be  seen. 

The  beauty  produced  by  finely  proportioned  and  delicately  contrasted  spaces 
should  be  emphasized  in  all  study  of  historic  ornament.  The  gradual  training  of  the 
eye  and  the  mind  to  a  fine  appreciation  of  this  important  element  will  lead  the 
pupils  to  a  right  understanding  of  what  constitutes  good  work,  and  will  ultimately 
express  itself  in  their  creative  efforts. 

The  study  of  historic  ornament  as  one  proceeds  leads  to  its  interpretation  as  a 
visible  manifestation  of  the  history,  life,  and  spirit  of  the  people  who  produce  it. 
The  contact  of  various  nations  or  peoples,  either 
through  war,  commerce,  or  travel,  can  be  traced 
in  their  ornament ;  and  it  is  an  evidence  in  the 
various  phases  of  progress  and  civilization. 

Good  historic  ornament  is  always  ennobling, 
for  it  is  an  expression  of  the  best  and  most  en- 
during feeling ;  it  is,  in  a  very  high  sense,  "  a 
survival  of  the  fittest."  A  lesson  in  historic 
ornament  may  and  should  be  not  merely  a 
lesson  in  drawing,  but  also,  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  a  lesson  in  history  and  aesthetics,  in 
living  and  in  doing. 

Decorative  Design. —  Historic  ornament  serves  as  a  broad  field  for  the  discov- 
ery of  those  elements  which  make  for  beauty  in  decorative  art.  The  study  of  good 
examples  of  ornament  leads  to  the  development  of  certain  general  principles.  It  is 
found  that  unity  is  essential  to  the  production  of  beauty  in  ornament.  Unity 
requires  that  the  effect  of  a  design,  as  a  whole,  should  be  considered,  and  that  the 
parts  should  be  subordinate  to  the  whole  effect. 

The  leading  principles  which  through  unity  lead  to  the  creation  of  the  beautiful 
in  decorative  design  may  be  stated  as  — 


From  Antae,  Temple  at  Eleusis. 


SYMMETRY, 

PROPORTION, 

RHYTHM, 


ORDER. 

CONTRAST, 

INTRICACY, 


BREADTH, 

STABILITY, 

REPOSE. 


Symmetry.  —  Symmetry  is  produced  by  balancing  the  parts  one  against  another.  The 
balance  maybe  of  form  (page  25)  or  of  value  (Antas,  Temple  of  Eleusis  illustrated  above). 
Figures  may  be  bi-symmetric  or  multi-symmetric;  in  other  words,  there  may  be  symmetry 
on  an  axis  (Figs.  14-19)  or  about  a  centre  (Figs.  8-13,  page  25). 


30  INTRODUCTION. 

Proportion.  — "  As  in  every  perfect  form  of  architecture  a  true  proportion  will  be 
found  to  reign  between  all  the  members  which  compose  it,  so  throughout  the  decora- 
tive arts  every  assemblage  of  forms  should  be  arranged  on  certain  definite  propor- 
tion's ;  the  whole  and  each  particular  member  should  be  a  multiple  of  some  simple  unit 
of  proportion." 

The  units  of  a  design  must  not  be  too  small  in  proportion  to  the  ground  to  be  covered. 
The  ornament  or  filling  should,  as  a  general  rule,  occupy  about  two-thirds  of  the  space 
within  the  enclosing  figure.  Color  as  well  as  space  values  should,  however,  be  carefully 
considered  as  modifying  elements.  (See  also  Intricacy,  below,  and  Proportion,  page  47, 
lender  Composition.) 

Rhythm.  —  As  the  effect  of  rhythm  in  music  is  produced  by  the  regular  recurrence  of 
measures  of  time,  in  decoration,  it  is  produced  by  the  regular  repetition  of  the  parts  of 
a  design.  There  are  three  ways  of  repeating  units  of  design:  (i)  to  cover  a  surface; 
(2)  on  a  straight  line;  (3)  around  a  centre.       (See  pages  24  and  25.) 

Repetition  may  be  close  or  open,  simple  or  alternate.  In  close  repetition,  the  units 
touch  each  other;  in  open  repetition,  a  space  intervenes.  In  simple  repetition,  one  unit 
only  is  repeated.  In  alternate  repetition,  two  or  more  units  are  repeated,  one  alternating 
with  the  other.    Counterchange  and  interlacing  are  forms  of  alternate  repetition. 

Order.  —  Order,  so  essential  to  the  beauty  of  a  design,  depends  upon  a  definite  plan 
of  geometric  arrangement.  This  plan  is  secured  by  enclosing  forms,  axes  of  symmetry, 
and  field  lines  for  the  units.     (See  pages  24  and  25.) 

Contrast.  —  In  a  decorative  design,  there  should  be  a  pleasing  contrast  of  direc- 
tion or  directness  in  line,  of  proportion  in  space,  of  shape  in  figures,  of  tone  and  hue 
in  color. 

Color  may  be  produced  by  the  brush,  by  colored  paper,  or  in  a  representative  way  by 
half-tone.  Half-tone  is  produced  with  the  pencil  or  pen  by  covering  the  surface  evenly  with 
lines  or  by  pencil  painting,  and  may  be  employed  to  distinguish  the  ornament  from  its 
background  (page  58).  Half-tone  may  be  used  either  upon  the  background  or  the  orna- 
ment ;  whichever  covers  the  least  surface  should  be  in  half-tone.  When  there  is  more  half- 
tone than  white  surface,  the  design  is  likely  to  appear  heavy.  Mechanical  results  are  not 
desirable  in  half-tone  in  freehand  work. 

Intricacy. —  There  is  great  beauty  in  that  intricacy  of  form  produced  by  subtility  of 
proportion  and  curvature.  The  simpler  the  proportion,  and  the  more  easily  it  is  detected 
by  the  eye,  the  less  pleasing  is  the  effect ;  while  the  more  subtile  the  proportion,  and  the 
more  difficult  it  is  for  the  eye  to  make  it  out,  the  more  pleasing  is  the  effect.  So,  also,  the 
more  subtile  of  two  curves  affords  the  eye  the  greater  pleasure.  Compare  the  circle  and 
the  oval. 

Breadth.  —  There  is  much  more  beauty  in  the  simple  arrangement  of  good,  well-drawn 
figures,  having  a  large  proportion  to  the  surface  which  has  to  be  covered,  producing  a  cer- 
tain strength  or  breadth  of  effect,  than  in  a  profusion  of  complicated  details  on  a  small  scale. 
If  there  are  subdivisions  of  units,  they  must  be  made  subordinate  to  the  effect  of  the  unit  a? 
a  whole. 


DECORATION. 


31 


Stability.  —  The  union  of  parts  produces  stability.  In  a  surface  design,  this  union  is 
secured  by  its  enclosing  figures  ;  in  a  border,  by  its  marginal  lines  ;  in  a  rosette,  by  a  strong 
central  figure  or  a  tendency  toward  the  centre. 

Repose.  —  It  is  essential  that  there  should  be  repose  in  ornament ;  that  is,  there  should 
not  be  too  violent  contrasts  of  form  or  of  color  in  the  parts,  but  they  should  harmonize 
while  they  vary. 

Curved  lines  should  unite  tangentially  with  curved  or  with  straight  lines.  Tangential 
union  showing  laws  of  growth  is  a  simple  example  of  harmony.     (See  below.) 


Study  of  Growth,  —  By  observing  plant  forms  and  tree  growth,  it  will  be  seen 
that  in  a  general  way  plant  growth  falls  into  three  classes  as  to  direction,  —  erect,  as 
in  trees  and  shrubs  (under  this  head  may  also  be 
placed  ascending  growth,  rising  obliquely  from  the 
root)  ;  twining  or  climbing,  as  the  morning-glory, 
the  pea,  bean,  and  nasturtium;  the  running  or 
creeping,  as  the  strawberry.  Erect  growth  is  sug- 
gestive in  its  vertical  symmetry  for  bilateral  units 
in  ornament,  and  in  the  radiation  seen  in  the  top 
view  for  arrangements  about  a  centre.  The  twining  or  climbing  plants  suggest 
spiral  growth  in  ornament,  and  the  running  plants  give  motives  for  horizontal 
ornament  and  for  a  garland  treatment. 

Tangential  Union.  —  The  law  of  tangential  union,  always  observed  in  nature, 
should  govern  decorative  design.  Owen  Jones  states  this  law  thus,  "  All  junctions 
of  curved  lines  with  curved,  or  curved  with  straight,  should  be  tangential  to  each 
other,"  or,  in  other  words,  they  should  be  so  drawn  that  they  would  touch,  but  if 
produced  would  not  cut  each  other.  Owen  Jones  further  says  :  "  Oriental  practice 
is  always  in  accordance  with  it.  Many  of  the  Moorish  ornaments  are  on  the  same 
principle  which  is  observable  in  the  lines  of  a  feather  and  in  the  articulations  of  every 
leaf;  and  to  this  is  due  that  additional  charm  found  in  all  perfect  ornamentation, 
which  we  call  the  graceful."  It  may  be  called  an  example  of  harmony 
of  form.  The  suggestion  here  given  of  the  interrelation  of  beautiful 
form  and  music  opens  a  \yide  door. 

Tangential  union  applies  to  all  lines  starting  from  a  centra!  line 
or  stem  ;  hence  the  lines  of  division  in  a  unit  should  unite  tangentially, 
the  sides  branching  from  the  central  division,  and  all  uniting  in  the  stem 
or  trunk  below.  The  law  of  tangential  union  should  govern  the  union 
of  the  divided  parts  of  a  unit.  Tangential  union  is  therefore  a  large 
factor  in  the  effect  of  growth  and  vigor  in  an  ornament,  and  teachers  should  make 
its  importance  and  beauty  very  well  known  to  pupils.     The  illustration  shows  on 


/ 


/ 


32 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  right  a  Hne  uniting  tangentially  with  the  vertical,  thus  showing  tangential  or 
"  touching  "  union ;  on  the  left,  a  line  which,  if  continued,  would  cut  the  vertical, 
thus  showing  secant  or  "  cutting  "  union. 

Symmetry.  —  The  laws  of  decorative  design,  as  has  been  said,  are  derived  from 
a  study  of  nature  and  of  geometry,  and  underlie  all  good  historic  ornament.  Thus 
the  idea  of  symmetry  is  found  constantly  suggested  and  approached  in  nature,  but 
never  actually  displayed  ;  in  geometry  it  is  perfected.  From  the  suggestions  of 
nature  and  the  idealizations  of  geometry,  the  element  of  symmetry  in  decorative 
design  has  been  developed. 

Bilateral  Unit.  —  A  decorative  design  is  planned  to  fill  the  space  it  is  to 
occupy ;  therefore,  bilateral  units  vary  in  proportion  according  to  the  place  in  which 
they  are  to  be  used.  But  there  are  certain  general  ideas  of  decorative  treatment 
which  pertain  to  all  the  variants.  These  ideas  can  best  be  developed  by  the  use  of 
the  general  type  of  the  bilateral  unit,  which  has  come  to  be  known  as  the  kite- 
shaped  unit,  as  seen  in  Fig.  2.  This  has  always  been  a  great  favorite,  as  it  seems  to 
meet  an  innate  desire  for  symmetry,  proportion,  and  variety.  It  is  very  interesting 
for  pupils  to  discover  this  type  in  examples  of  ornament  of  various  styles.  The  lotus 
palmette  is  of  this  type. 

Symmetry  is  produced  by  repetition  on  an  axis,  called  the  axis  of  symmetry. 
Proportion  in  art  is  the  pleasing  relation  of  unequal  parts.  The  kite-shaped  unit  is 
susceptible  of  innumerable  changes  of  outhne  and  proportion,  while  still  retaining  its 
chief  characteristic  —  unequal  tapering  at  the  two  ends  of  the  axis  —  through  all 
the  changes.  The  greatest  width  of  the  kite-shaped  unit  may  be  at  any  point  in  the 
axis  outside  the  centre  ;  or,  in  other  words,  considering  the  figure  in  its  normal 
position,  the  greatest  width  may  be  above  or  below  the  centre,  but  not  at  the  centre 
of  the  axis.     Its  normal  position  is  with  the  axis  vertical. 

Modifications.  —  The  line  of  illustrations  below  shows  some  of  the  simple  modi- 
fications that  may  be  made  in  the  kite-shaped  unit  by  changing  a  part  or  the  w^hole 
of  the  outline  from  straight  to  curved  lines.  Still  further  modifications  are  intro- 
duced to  give  stability,  strength,  and  variety. 


Fig.  I. 


Fig. 


DECOEA  TION. 


33 


Stability.  —  Study  tree  form,  and  see  how  stability  is  there  secured.  Sketch 
a  tree  roughly  in  mere  outlme ;  note  the  general  shape  obtained  —  a  strong  trunk, 
broad  branching  at  the  top,  an  expansion  at  the  roots. 

Study  now  Figs.  7  to  10,  and  note  the  expansion  at  the  root  or  base,  which 
gives  the  appearance  of  stability  to  the  unit.  A  unit  with  insufficient  expansion  at 
the  base  is  weak.     This  is,  then,  an  important  modification. 

Strength.  —  While  considering  expansion  at  the  base,  provision  must  also  be 
made  for  the  strength- of  the  unit,  which  can  be  best  attained  by  sufficient  width  of 
stem  or  trunk.  If  the  trunk  or  stem  is  made  too  slender,  the  unit  becomes  painfully 
weak.  In  a  tree,  the  trunk  is  generally  slender  in  proportion  to  the  width  of  the 
branching,  but  in  a  tree  much  strength  comes  from  the  growing  life.  In  a  figure, 
strength  must  be  expressed  in  the  trunk  or  stem  by  a  greater  proportional  width. 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  9. 


Variety.  —  The  unit  may  be  modified  by  division,  so  as  to  secure  greater  variety  ; 
this  division  may  be  partial,  as  in  Figs.  8  and  9,  or  entire,  as  in  Fig.  10.  In  the  use 
of  division,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  impair  the  strength  of  the  unit.  The  divisions 
of  Fig.  8,  a  partially  divided  figure,  are  held  together  by  the  strong  undivided  stem, 
as  the  trunk  of  a  tree  holds  the  branches  together.  Draw  this  on  the  board,  and 
lead  pupils  to  see  that  if  the  divisions  are  carried  too  low,  there  will  be  an  apparent 
tendency  to  split,  and  thus  the  strength  of  the  unit  will  be  lost. 

Pay  special  attention  to  the  proportional  width  of  parts  in  these  units,  the 
central  part  being  broader  than  those  at  the  sides.  Division  of  the  unit  introduces 
a  very  beautiful  phase  of  -proportion  —  proportional  parts.  The  beauty  of  propor- 
tional parts  may  be  illustrated  not  only  by  the  study  of  the  figure,  but  also  by  the 
study  of  nature.  Three  and  five  lobed  leaves  show  this  regard  for  proportional 
parts.  Note  also  that  these  parts  seem  to  grow  from  the  stem,  and  that  their  curves, 
if  continued,  would  pass  within  the  stem.     This  is  an  important  point. 

If  the  unit  is  wholly  divided,  as  in  Fig.  10,  stability  may  be  obtained  by 
holding  the  parts  together  by  a  band.  Care  must  be  used,  however,  to  place 
the  band  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  unit,  where  it  would  really  be  of  use.     Show 


34  INTRODUCTION. 

this  by  drawing  on  the  board.  The  good  -effect  of  fine  curvature  and  pleasing 
proportion  may  be  largely  destroyed  by  placing  the  band  above  or  below  the 
narrowest  part  of  the  unit.  The  effect  given  is  that  of  insecure  holding,  which 
detracts  greatly  from  the  repose  necessary  in  ornament.  Division  may  also  be 
tised  in  a  moderate  degree  to  give  variety  to  the  base. 

How  to  Judge  a  Unit.  —  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  for  beginners  to  draw  simple 
and  beautiful  units,  and  teachers  are  sometimes  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  help  their 
pupils.  It  is  necessary  first  to  consider  the  characteristics  of  a  good  unit.  A  unit 
complete  in  itself  should  possess  symmetry,  proportion,  contrast,  breadth,  stability, 
and  repose,  and  should  be  judged  according  to  its  possession  or  lack  of  these 
characteristics.     In  judging  units,  the  following  questions  will  be  helpful :  — 

Symmetry.  —  Is  the  unit  symmetric,  or  is  it  one-sided?  Pupils  should  be  lea  to 
see  the  beauty  of  symmetry,  by  which  one  part  is  the  reflex  of  the  other,  and  therefore 
in  harmony  with  it. 

Proportion.  — Is  the  proportion  of  the  unit  agreeable  as  to  general  dimensions?  The 
effect  will  not  be  good  if  the  two  dimensions  are  either  very  nearly  alike  or  widely 
different.  If  the  unit  is  partially  divided,  what  is  the  relative  proportion  of  its  parts? 
There  should  be  a  moderate  inequality  between  the  central  part  and  those  at  the  side, 
the  central  part  being  larger  than  the  other  two.  The  proportion  of  each  part  should 
be  that  of  slenderness,  rather  than  of  breadth.  If  the  parts  are  made  too  wide,  the  unit, 
as  a  whole,  will  lack  elegance  of  proportion. 

Contrast.  —  Is  there  a  pleasing  contrast  of  straight  and  curved  lines,  or  of  inner 
and  outer  curves,  or  of  curves  and  points?  Thgre  is  often  a  monotony  of  outline  in  a 
unit,  produced  by  several  curves  of  the  same  sort,  or  by  continuous  curves  of  no  very 
strong  character. 

Breadth.  —  Is  the  unit  simple?  Simplicity  is  a  great  beauty  in  decoration.  If  the 
Ainit  is  cut  up  into  many  petty  parts,  this  beauty  is  lost. 

Stability.  —  Is  the  stem  of  the  unit  broad  enough  to  be  strong?  Does  the  unit 
expand  at  the  base?  If  partially  divided,  would  the  curves  of  each  part,  if  extended 
downward,  pass  within  the  stem,  or  would  they  cut  through  it?  To  be  true  to  the  laws 
of  growth,  they  should  pass  within  the  stem.  Notice  whether  the  curves  which  divide  the 
unit  into  three  parts  would,  if  continued  downward,  cross  the  outer  lines  of  the  stem.  If 
wholly  divided  and  held  by  a  band,  is  the  band  so  placed  that  it  can  perform  its  office? 

Repose.  —  Is  there  anything  startling  about  the  unit?  Has  it  many  sharp  points?  or 
unusual  curves?  If  so,  it  cannot  be  restful.  Are  the  curves  easy,  flowing,  and  graceful? 
The  higher  qualities  of  repose  are  obtained  through  symmetry,  proportion,  breadth,  and 

stability. 

"Teach  them  the  music  fine 
In  the  curve  of  a  perfect  line." 


DECORATION.  35 

Rosette. — A  rosette  may  or  may  not  have  an  enclosing  figure.  When  it  is 
desired  for  any  reason  to  call  particular  attention  to  the  shape  of  a  rosette,  or  to 
indicate  more  clearly  its  fitness  to  occupy  a  certain  place,  an  enclosing  figure  is 
added  to  emphasize  the  shape.  A  rosette  is  usually  made  up  of  symmetric  units, 
which  occupy  c(\u2i\  fields.  A  field  is  that  part  of  the  ground  of  a  design  that  a  unit 
is  to  occupy.  If  the  rosette  is  from  a  flower  form  the  number  of  units  is  deter- 
mined by  the  petals  in  the  flower  chosen.  To  aid  in  preserving  the  symmetry  and 
order  of  the  rosette,  the  axis  of  the  units  should  be  drawn.  In  a  circular  figure, 
the  radii  of  the  circle  will  sei-ve  as  axes  of  the  units. 

The  unit,  however,  must  not  touch  the  enclosing  circle,  for  that  would  give  a 
crowded  look ;  a  feeling  of  restriction  and  constriction  would  ensue,  and  the 
repose  of  the  figure  would  be  lost.  A  space,  therefore,  should  be  left  between  the 
ornament  or  filling  and  the  enclosing  figure ;  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  ground 
should  be  filled.     A  skilful  teacher  will  lead  pupils  to  this  study  of  space  relations. 

Study  of  Nature.  —  Study  a  flower,  observe  its  general  outline,  the  arrange- 
ment about  the  centre,  the  radiating  petals,  their  graceful  shape,  the  way  in  which 
they  are  held  at  the  centre,  the  stamens  and  pistils  filHng  the  centre.  Try  to  ex- 
press this  in  a  broad,  simple  way,  by  drawing  with  an  even  line.  You  will  have  a 
rosette  with  regular,  radiating  units  of  beautiful  outline,  and  a  strong,  simple 
■centre.  The  details  of  stamens  and  pistils  are  too  minute  for  representation  here 
—  the  result  would  be  only  dots,  which  would  seem  characterless.  The  centre  of 
the  rosette,  holding  the  units  together,  is  simply  a  reflex  in  the  drawing  of  that 
mysterious  power  of  life  that  sends  out  the  flower  and  holds  the  petals  with  a 
circling  hand.  This  is  a  delightful  exercise,  and  is  always  enjoyed  by  pupils,  as  it 
is  not  beyond  their  comprehension,  and  it  gives  them  an  opportunity  to  discover 
the  elements  of  beauty  ;  and  so  insight  grows. 

Besides  the  wonderful  beauty  of  appearance  and  the  marvellous  physical 
structure  of  a  flower,  there  lies  within  it  a  perfect  manifestation  of  order,  of  sym- 
metry, of  proportion,  of  unity,  of  aesthetic  beauty.  The  aesthetic  is  the  highest 
type  of  the  ideal.  In  studying  a  flower  for  a  motive  of  ornament,  the  attempt 
must  be,  through  the  study  of  the  flower,  to  reach  its  ideal. 

A  Surface  Covering.  —  Probably  the  idea  of  designs  for  surface  covering  arose 
from  the  patterns  brought  out  in  weaving.  Thus  from  the  beginning  order  was 
suggested  ;  and  still,  order  resulting  from  a  geometric  plan  is  one  of  the  essentials 
in  a  surface  covering. 

Walter  Crane,  in  speaking  of  designs  for  surface  coverings,  says,  "  Most  of  us 
who  have  given  thought  to  the  subject  feel  that  a  design  must  be  constructed  on 
some  systematic  plan,  if  not  absolutely  controlled  by  a  geometric  basis." 


36 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  first  step  then  in  the  actual  drawing  of  a  design  must  be  ,a  plan  on  which 
to  lay  it  out.  It  must  be  determined  also  whether  it  is  to  be  used  horizontally  or 
vertically.  A  bilateral  unit  is  always  suitable  for  a  vertical  surface  covering.  A 
rosette  is  suitable  for  either  a  vertical  or  a  horizontal  surface  covering. 

Have  some  examples  of  simple  surface  covering  in  textiles  or  wall-paper,  and 
let  pupils  discover  the  geometric  arrangement  or  plan  that  underlies  the  placing  of 
the  figures.  Sometimes  this  plan  is  easily  traced,  and  sometimes  it  is  apparently 
hidden ;  but  a  httle  search  will  always  find  it.  The  usual  plans  of  surface  coverings 
are  based  on  squares,  rhombuses,  or  hexagons  repeated. 

In  some  of  these  designs,  the  geometric  plan  shown  by  light  lines  in  Fig.  5,  Plate 
IV,  and  in  the  illustration  below,  i/oes  not  appear  in  the  finished  work ;  only 
the  decorative  figures  remain.  In  others,  as  in  Fig.  3,  the  geometric  plan  is  left  to 
form  part  of  the  design.  Plate  IV  gives  various  examples  of  surface  coverings 
which  plainly  show  geometric  plan.  Fig.  i  is  Japanese  ;  Fig.  2  is  Persian  ;  Figs.  3 
and  4  are  Egyptian ;  Figs.  5  and  6  are  modern,  and  were  taken  from  Lewis  Day's 
Anatomy  of  Pattern. 

When  in  a  surface  design  the  units  only  appear,  the  geometric  laying  out  of 
the  space  having  been  erased,  the  arrangement  is  technically  known  as  powdering. 

Figs.  2,  4,  5,  and  6,  Plate  IV,  are  examples 
of  powdering. 

Distribution  over  the  surface  is  now  to 
be  considered.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the 
unit  be  not  too  large  for  the  allotted  space,  so 
that  the  design  shall  not  look  crowded ;  and 
also  that  the  units  shall  not  be  too  small,  so  that 
the  unit  will  not  seem  scattered  and  lost.  As  a 
general  rule,  about  two-thirds  of  the  surface 
should  be  covered  in  a  surface  covering.  The 
units  in  a  surface  covering  taken  collectively 
are  known  as  the  fiUing;  the  space  uncovered 
is  known  as  the  ground  or  field.  The  propor- 
tion of  the  fiUing  to  the  ground  should  then 
be  about  as  two  to  three. 

Decorative   Treatment.  —  The   decorative 
treatment    of    a    natural     form     occupies     a 
middle  ground  between  a  picture  and  a  decorative  design.      In  all  three,  the  com- 
position of  line,  mass,  and  color  is  a  decided   element.      In  a  decorative  design 
the  composition  has  a  geometric  basis ;  while  in  a  picture  and  in  a  decorative  treat- 


PLATE   IV. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


^<Xv       vTv" 


''^uJ^ 


7l 


i^' 


h 


"v.> 


^3 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  6. 


A    Page   of  Designs  for  Surface   Covering. 


DECORATION.  37 

nient,  the  composition  depends  on  agreeable  contrasts  of  line,  mass,  and  space,  with 
more  regard  to  pictorial  effect  than  to  geometric  order.  In  a  picture,  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  object  in  light  and  shade,  with  all  the  harmonizing  accessories  of 
composition  of  line,  hght,  and  dark,  etc.,  is  the  main  thing.  In  a  decorative  treatment, 
the  composition  of  line,  mass,  and  color  is  the  chief  element,  while  the  representation 
is  carefully  kept.  The  drawing  is  true  and  spirited,  but  without  the  pictorial  element 
and  the  modeling  given  by  light  and  shade.  The  contrasts  are  not  of  light  and 
shade,  but  of  light  and  dark,  or  of  light,  dark,  and  middle  tone,  as  will  be  seen  in 
Plate  V.  Everything  is  kept  in  flat  effect,  whether  the  work  be  in  black  and  white 
or  in  color. 

Mr.  La  Farge  says,  "  We  compose  when  we  select."  The  selection  of  a  suit- 
able motive,  and  of  a  beautiful  aspect  of  this  motive,  is  one  of  the  elements  of  com- 
position for  decorative  treatment.  The  selection  of  a  well-proportioned  enclosing 
figure  is  of  importance,  as  well  as  the  disposition  of  the  motive  in  the  figure.  The 
relation  of  the  open  spaces  to  each  other  should  be  studied,  as  well  as  the  beauty, 
contrast,  and  harmony  of  line,  mass,  and  color,  in  the  motive  itself.  Decorativ^e 
treatment  is  used  more  for  single  effects  than  for  repetition. 

Decorative  Design. — The  purpose  of  decorative  design,  however,  is  mainly  to 
produce  subordinate  effects  for  repetition ;  hence,  the  mode  of  composition  differs 
greatly  from  that  for  decorative  treatment.  In  decorative  design,  conventionalization 
and  a  geometric  plan  subordinate  the  pictorial^  and  tend  to  make  the  decoration 
quiet,  restful,  and  undemonstrative.  Decoration  should  attract  by  its  harmony, 
repose,  and  unobtrusiveness.  It  should  surround  one  with  companionship  of 
thought  as  expressed  in  the  beautiful  without  any  element  of  domination. 

Method  of  Study.  —  For  a  decorative  treatment  seek  a  beautiful  motive  and  the 
most  beautiful  aspect  of  that  motive  ;  if  the  enclosing  figure  is  not  fixed,  look  for 
one  beautiful  in  itself  and  suited  to  the  motive ;  consider  how  the  motive  may  be 
best  arranged  to  make  the  contrasts  with  the  open  spaces  agreeable ;  try  to  express 
the  life  and  grace  of  the  motive  in  the  lines,  masses,  or  colors  ;  but  keep  all  the  treat- 
ment flat,  without  expression  of  light  and  shade.  Study,  however,  the  relation  of 
light  and  dark.  If  a  certain  fixed  space  is  to  receive  a  decorative  treatment,  seek 
for  a  motive  fitted  to  the  space,  selecting  its  most  beautiful  aspect. 

In  decorative  design,  however,  consider  first  the  mode  of  repetition,  whether 
for  a  unit,  a  centre,  a  border,  or  a  surface  covering.  Select  a  beautiful  motive,  and 
consider  the  geometric  plan  for  the  design.  Draw  the  lines  and  masses  which 
represent  the  ideal  of  the  motive,  rejecting  all  pictorial  effects. 

In  decorative  treatment  the  motive  is  the  main  feature ;  in  decorative  design 
the  motive  is  used  to  enhance  the  beauty  of  geometric  order  and  arrangement. 


38  INTRODUCTION. 

Mode  of  Expression.  —  This  may  be  with  pencil  or  brush,  in  outline,  light  and 
dark,  or  color. 

In  Representation,  a  drawing  is  intended  to  represent  the  appearance  of  an 
object,  or  group  of  objects,  and  therefore  to  express  not  only  the  appearance  as  to 
mere  outline,  but  also  as  to  distance,  as  to  direction  of  light,  and  as  to  relative 
importance  of  parts.  It  is  in  Representation,  therefore,  that  what  is  known  as 
"  rendering "  is  used,  giving  more  emphasis  to  some  parts,  and  less  to  others, 
according  to  their  light,  their  distance,  and  their  value,  by  Unes  varying  in  thickness 
and  in  shade. 

In  Decoration  the  purpose  is  different.  No  effect  of  light,  shade,  distance,  or 
value  is  desirable  in  flat  decoration.  A  decorative  figure  should  be  drawn  in  the 
simplest  possible  way.  It  should  be  drawn  with  intelligence,  with  strength,  with 
purpose,  with  firmness.  The  line  should  be  open  in  texture,  of  an  even  gray  color, 
and  of  an  even  width.  Venation  may  be  expressed  (it  should  be  sparingly,  how- 
ever) by  a  line  tapering  in  width.  Unevenness  of  Hne  in  decorative  outhne  detracts 
from  repose. 

Accent  in  line  —  that  is,  the  line  rendered  as  it  would  be  in  pictorial  drawing 
—  is  out  of  place  in  flat  decoration.  The  line  may  sometimes  be  irregular,  as  in 
the  drawing  of  historic  ornament,  but  it  should  retain  the  effect  of  flatness. 


Construction;  or,  Drawing  as  Applied  in  Conveying  Ideas  of  the  Facts 

of  Objects. 

Construction  deals  with  the  facts  of  form,  and  shows  the  use  which  is  made  of 
the  drawing  of  these  facts  in  the  world  of  industry.  Its  importance,  both  educa- 
tionally and  practically,  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 

Working-Drawings.  —  Constructioji  as  used  in  graphic  study  is  the  science  and 
art  of  making  drawings  which  give  the  facts  of  size  and  structure  of  objects  and 
from  which  objects  may  be  constructed.  These  are  called  working-drawings,  and 
are  necessary  to  guide  the  workman  in  nearly  every  branch  of  manufacture. 

Practical  Value.  —  The  practical  value  of  constructive  drawing  will  be  more 
and  more  recognized  as  knowledge  grows  of  the  way  in  which  ideas  of  form,  that 
is  to  say,  constructive  designs,  are  expressed  so  as  to  be  carried  out  in  manufacture 
and  industry.  Every  detail  of  building  construction,  from  the  stone  foundation  and 
the  beams  to  the  finished  exterior  views  of  the  house,  or  church,  or  cathedral,  has 
first  to  be  imagined,  and  then  shown  by  working-drawings ;  from  these  drawings 
the  builders  work.     Every  new  invention,  from  the  simplest  detail  in  machinery  to 


PLATE   V 


From  Japanese  Drawings. 


^TATFrJODIlU!  N.r:.. 


CONSTBUCTION.  39 

a  great  engine  as  a  whole,  must  not  only  be  thought  out  before  it  can  be  made 
practical,  but  it  must  also  be  expressed  and  be  made  intelligible  through  working- 
drawings.  It  is  through  working-drawings  that  every  new  object  manufactured  is 
made  possible,  is  materialized,  so  to  speak.  Designs  for  all  landscape  gardening 
and  outdoor  improvements  —  roads,  parks,  drives,  etc.  —  must  be  expressed  in 
working-drawings,  that  they  may  be  carried  out  by  workmen.  The  great  works  of 
civil  and  mining  engineering  depend  upon  working-drawings  for  their  ultimation. 
There  is  no  walk  in  life  in  which  a  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  expression  under- 
lying working-drawings  and  the  ability  to  interpret  them  are  not  of  service. 

Creative  Imagination.  —  But  beyond  the  practical  benefits  arising  from  a  knowl- 
edge of  constructive  drawing  there  lies  the  great  educational  value  in  the  subject  of 
Construction  well  presented.  It  calls  for  most  accurate  observation,  most  careful 
.consideration  of  the  relation  of  parts  and  of  form  values,  of  the  adaptation  of  form 
to  purpose,  of  agreeableness  and  beauty  of  form  —  all  in  the  service  of  the  creative 
imagination.  The  principles  which  govern  the  expression  of  thought  in  the  subject 
of  Construction  are  fixed,  and  take  their  place  among  the  exact  sciences.  From 
these  considerations,  the  value  of  construction  will  be  seen,  as  a  subject  of  study^ 
not  only  for  the  few  who  wish  to  pursue  its  special  lines,  but  also  for  all  students. 

A  Working-Drawing.  —  A  working-drawing  is  a  drawing  which  gives  all  the  facts  of 
form,  size,  and  structure  of  an  object.  Its  purpose  is  to  show  a  workman  with  accuracy  all 
the  facts  of  an  object  which  is  to  be  made.  This  object  may  be  one  already  made  or  it 
may  exist  only  in  the  brain  of  the  inventor  or  designer. 

A  working-drawing  is,  therefore,  composed  of  as  many  different  geometric  views  of  an 
object  as  are  necessary  to  the  complete  understanding  of  the  object. 

A  geometric  view  shows  an  object  under  the  simplest  possible  conditions  ;  that  is,  as 
seen  with  but  two  dimensions.  For  such  a  view,  the  object  is  supposed  to  be  placed  not 
only  directly  in  front  of  the  eye,  but  as  though  each  individual  part  was  directly  in  front  of 
the  eye. 

The  different  views  required  in  a  working-drawing  are  named  from  the  part  represented 
in  the  view ;  thus  the  front  view  represents  the  view  obtained  by  looking  directly  at  the 
front  of  the  object ;  the  top  view  represents  the  view  obtained  by  looking  directly  down 
upon  the  ebject,  and  so  on  with  the  other  views. 

It  has  been  agreed  by  long  custom  to  represent  certain  things  in  working-drawings 
by  certain  kinds  of  lines  ;  agreements  of  this  sort  have  come  to  be  known  as  "conventions." 
The  "conventions  "  of  Construction  to  be  noted  at  this  time  are  few.  The  various  kinds 
of  lines  used  are  centre  lines,  working  lines,  visible  lines,  invisible  lines. 

In  lead-pencil  drawing,  the  centre  line  —  that  is,  the  line  for  placing  the  views — is 

usually  made  a  short-and-long-dash  line ,  the  long  dashes  being  made 

longer  than  those  for  "invisible  lines."     Working  lines,  by  means  of  which  distances  ar? 


40  INTRODUCTION. 

transferred  from  one  view  to  another,  are  frequently  made  short-dash  lines,  but  they  may 
be  made  light  lines.     Working  lines,  however,  are  used  only  in  elementary  practice. 

All  visible  edges  and  outlines  —  that  is,  edges  and  outlines  which  are  actually  seen  in  the 
view  to  be  drawn — are  represented  by  clear,  full  Hnes,  called  "visible  hues,"  perfectly  even 
and  uniform,  not  too  strong  nor  yet  too  fine.  "  Invisible  lines  "  representing  edges  or  out- 
lines which  are  known  to  exist  in  the  object,  but  which  are  hidden  in  the  particular  view 

which  is  being  drawn,  are  always  made  long-dash  lines ,  and  should  be  of 

the  same  strength  as  the  full  lines.  By  means  of  these  conventions  the  purpose  of  these 
various  lines  is  seen  at  a  glance. 

Dimension  lines  figured  show  the  size  of  the  object.  They  are  limited  by  arrow- 
heads ;  they  may  be  either  short-dash  lines,  as  illustrated  on  page  41,  or  they  may  be  long 

fine  lines  < o'  —  6"  >  broken  by  the  insertion  of  the  figuring 

necessary  to  show  the  size. 

In  making  a  working-drawing  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  make  the  drawing  smaller 
than  the  object.  In  order  to  keep  the  proportions  of  the  object  in  the  drawing,  the  method 
of  "drawing  to  scale"  has  been  adopted.  If  the  scale  is  decided  to  be  |"  to  I'-o",  then 
for  every  foot  in  the  object,  half  an  inch  is  laid  off  on  the  drawing.  The  drawing  is  then 
i''  to  i'-o"or  Scale  ^' 


marked:  Scale  i"  to  i'-o"or  Scale  A"  =  I'-o" 


It  is  necessary  to  multiply  the  views  as  the  details  of  the  object  increase  and  as 
the  construction  becomes  more  complicated ;  but  it  is  not  often  in  simple  objects 
that  more  than  three  outside  views  are  required.  Yet  there  are  six  outside  views  of 
any  rectangular  object :  top  view ;  bottom  view ;  front  view,  sometimes  called  up- 
right view,  face  view  or  elevation ;  back  view ;  left  side,  or  end  view ;  right  side,  or 
end  view.  In  addition  to  these,  there  may  be  as  many  sectional  views  as  are  re- 
quired for  a  clear  understanding  of  the  internal  construction  and  details.  A  sectional 
view  is  a  representation  of  an  object,  which  gives  two  dimensions  and  details  of  the 
object,  as  seen  when  it  is  cut  through  horizontally,  or  vertically,  or  obliquely,  thus 
showing  the  construction  of  the  interior. 

Illustrations  of  working-drawings  of  simple  objects  will  be  found  on  page  41. 
Fig,  I  shows  two  views  of  a  hoop ;  Fig.  2,  two  views  of  a  slate ;  Fig.  3,  three  views 
of  a  square  frame,  square  in  section ;  Fig.  4,  three  views  of  a  circular  frame,  square 
in  section;  Fig.  5,  three  views  of  a  circular  frame,  circular  in  section;  Fig.  6,  two 
views  of  a  screw  ;  Fig.  7,  four  views  of  a  hollow  cylinder,  closed  at  the  upper  end. 
It  will  be  seen  that  in  Figs.  3,  4,  5,  and  7  sectional  views  are  necessary  to  show  the 
facts  of  form  of  the  objects. 

The  "conventions"  mentioned  above  —  centre  lines,  visible  lines,  invisible 
lines  —  are  illustrated  in  these  working-drawings.  It  will  be  noticed  that  these  draw- 
ings give  the  facts  of  size  as  well  as  of  form.  Working  lines  are  illustrated  in  the 
Drawing  Books  and  Manuals  for  the  Fourth  to  the  Eighth  years. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


41 


If 

1 

I 

1 

^ 

1                                                  1 

Fio.  1 


View 


Section  on  A 15 
Fig.  3. 


FiG.  2 


,  igi''jf — ;4'c-j(i"^ 


Top  View 
I 


idKCTION  ON    CI> 

Fig.  4. 


I 

l.v 


Top  View 


1^ 

^ 

I 
1 
1 

00 

1 
1 

■ 

! 

- 

I'aOKT  \'IEV.- 

I 


'l^v-i^'--f">i 
C)     i     n 

Toi>  View 
I 


Section  on  KF 
Fig.  5.         I 


Fkont  View 


Front  View 


Front  Vfew 


Fig. 


f-i"!--j 

1 

1 

1     i    1 

1 
1 
1 

1     1    1 

1   i   i 

1    i    1 

1 
1 

1    i    1 

I'hont   \ikw 


Front  V 


^^ 


c..2._l._^  D. 

^     i     ^ 


Section  on  AB 


Section  on  CD 
Bottom  View 


ONT    VIEW 


Bottom  View 


42  INTRODUCTION. 

Dimensions.  —  Clear  ideas  of  dimensions  are  necessary  in  the  subject  of  Con* 
struction.     Dimension  is  extent  in  any  one  direction. 

Dimension  in  only  one  direction,  as  of  a  line,  is  known  as  length. 

When  there  are  two  dimensions,  as  of  any  surface,  the  two  dimensions  are 
called  length  and  breadth. 

When  there  are  three  dimensions,  as  of  a  solid,  the  longest  dimension  is  known 
as  length,  the  next  is  known  as  breadth,  and  the  shortest  is  known  as  thickness. 
Thickness,  however,  always  expresses  solidity,  and  is  never  used  to  express  the  third 
dimension  of  a  hollow  object. 

The  terms  just  spoken  of  are  applied  to  solids  and  objects  without  reference  to 
position. 

Let  a  solid  now  be  considered  with  regard  to  both  dimension  and  position. 
It  has  three  dimensions,  as  before,  but  the  dimensions  now  have  definite  direction, 
—  it  has  one  vertical  dimension  and  two  horizontal  dimensions.  The  vertical 
dimension  is  known  as  height ;  and  the  horizontal  dimensions  are  designated  by 
width  :   I,  width  from  left  to  right ;  2,  width  from  back  to  front. 

When  the  vertical  dimension  is  less  than  the  shorter  of  the  horizontal  dimen- 
sions, it  is  sometimes  known  as  thickness.  It  is  better,  however,  as  a  general  rule, 
to  adhere  to  the  terms  height,  width  from  left  to  right,  width  from  back  to  front,  in 
speaking  of  objects  in  a  definite  position. 

Pupils  may  be  called  on  to  measure  the  length  of  certain  lines  in  the  room, 
whether  vertical,  horizontal,  or  oblique.  Then  they  may  measure  faces,  —  so  many 
inches  one  way,  so  many  inches  the  other  way.  Then  they  may  measure  solids,  —  so 
many  inches  one  way,  so  many  inches  another  way,  so  many  inches  another  way  ; 
thus  gaining  the  idea  of  measurements  in  different  directions,  and  from  that  the  idea 
of  extension  or  dimension  in  different  directions. 

In  a  similar  way  the  idea  of  height,  of  width  from  left  to  right,  and  of  width 
from  back  to  front,  as  dimensions  in  different  directions,  may  be  developed,  and 
probably  the  pupils  can  be  led  to  express  these  by  the  proper  terms. 

Pupils  will  now  be  ready  to  see  that  in  a  geometric  view  but  two  dimensions 
are  represented,  and  that  in  order  to  represent  three  dimensions  of  an  object  two 
geometric  views  are  necessary. 

Views  of  Solids.  —  When  a  solid  is  simple  and  regular,  the  facts  of  its  form  can  be 
shown  in  two  views,  —  the  front  and  top  views.  These  views  should  be  placed  in  the 
same  relation  to  each  other  that  they  have  in  the  object ;  that  is  to  say,  the  top  view 
should  be  placed  above  the  front  view.     The  top  and  front  views  of  twelve  solids ' 

1  A  full  statement  of  their  characteristics  and  applications  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  this  Manual. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


43 


are  here  illustrated  —  the  top  and  front  views  of  the  sphere,  Fig.  i,  —  the  cube, 
Fig.  2,  —  the  cylinder.  Fig.  3,  —  the  hemisphere.  Fig.  4,  —  the  square  prism. 
Fig.  5,  —  the  right-angled  triangular  prism,  Fig.  6,  —  the  top  and  front  views  of  the 
ellipsoid.  Fig.  7,  —  the  ovoid,  Fig.  8,  —  the  equilateral  triangular  prism  facing,  Fig.  9, 
—  the  same  with  a  long  edge  toward  you,  Fig.  10,  —  the  cone.  Fig.  11,  —  the 
pyramid,  Fig.  12,  —  the  vase  form,  Fig.  13,  are  seen. 


Fig.  I. 


Fig. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  6. 


O  A  VO 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9. 


Fig. 


10. 


Fig.  II. 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


More  than  Two  Views,  —  It  is  frequently  desirable  to  have  more  than  two  views. 
In  this  connection,  the  triangular  prisms  show  some  interesting  facts,  as  will  be 
seen  by  the  study  of  their  views.  Take  first  the  right-angled  triangular  prism  in  a 
vertical  position.  This  prism  has  two  right-angled  triangular  faces,  two  narrow 
oblong  faces,  and  a  broad  oblong  face.  If  it  is  placed  vertically,  with  one  narrow 
oblong  face  facing  you  and  the  other  on  the  left  side,  its  top,  front,  bottom,  and  right- 
side  views  -will  be  as  in  Fig.  i.  As,  in  the  solid  in  this  position,  the  vertex  of  each 
triangular  face  points  away  from  the  front  face,  so  the  vertexes  of  the  triangles  in 
the  top  view  and  in  the  bottom  view  point  away  from  the  front  view. 

The  side  view  of  a  solid  shows  its  width  directly  from  back  to  front,  therefore 
the  left  and  right  side  views  of  a  solid  must  be  of  the  same  width,  and  the  right- 
side  view  of  the  prism  in  this  position  must  be  a  narrow  oblong,  no  wider  than  the  left 
face,  although,  in  looking  at  the  right-side  view,  the  broader  oblong  face  is  in  sight. 


44 


INTRODUCTION. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


If  the  prism  is  placed  so  that  one  narrow  oblong  face  is  at  the  left  and  the 
other  is  at  the  back,  its  views  will  be  as  in  Fig.  2.  If  it  is  placed  with  the  broad 
oblong  face  at  the  back,  its  views  will  be  as  in  Fig.  3.  The  right-side  view  cannot 
be  wider  than  the  width  of  the  solid  from  back  to  front,  as  seen  in  the  top  view. 
If  the  prism  is  placed  with  the  broad  oblong  face  facing,  its  views  will  be  as  in 
Fig.  4.     These  views  will  be  readily  understood  if  they  are  studied  from  the  solid. 

The  study  of  the  equi.  tri.  prism  placed  vertically  and  horizontally  as  Figs.  9 
and  10,  page  43,  would  also  show  facts  of  a  similar  nature.  The  left  end,  front  and 
top  views  of  the  horizontal  equi.  tri.  prism,  in  various  positions,  are  seen  in  the 
illustrations  below.  In  Fig.  i,  the  prism  rests  on  an  oblong  face;  the  front 
view  is  not  as  high  as  the  front  face  would  measure,  for  the  front  view  cannot  be 
higher  than  the  end  view.  The  width  of  the  top  view,  from  back  to  front,  equals 
the  width  of  the  left  end.  Similar  facts  will  be  observed  in  Figs.  2  and  3.  In 
Fig.  3,  the  prism  is  supposed  to  rest  on  a  long  edge,  with  an  oblong  face  facing 
you. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Patterns.  —  A  pattern  is  anything  cut  or  drawn  or  formed  to  correspond  to  an 
object  to  be  made,  and  serving  as  a  guide  for  determining  its  exact  shape  or  form 
and  its  dimensions. 

A  flat  pattern  of  a  solid  is  made  by  what  is  called  the  development  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  solid.  The  surface  is,  as  it  were,  unfolded  and  spread  out  flat,  thus 
making  a  pattern,  which,  when  folded,  will  show  the  form  of  the  solid.     The  devel- 


COMPOSITION. 


46 


opment  of  the  surface  of  the  square  prism  is  shown  below ;  also  the  pattern  of  a 
cube  with  laps  for  pasting.  The  subject  of  patterns  and  development  is  carried  in 
this  Course  as  far  as  the  development  of  a  four-part  elbow. 


Manual  Training.  —  Both  educators  and  practical  men  are  now  seeking  the 
introduction  of  manual  training  into  regular  school  work.  Such  training  will,  how- 
ever, fall  short  of  the  desired  result,  both  educational  and  practical,  unless  pursued 
in  connection  with  regular,  systematic,  thoughtful  work  in  Form  Study  and  Drawing, 
as  form  is  the  basis  of  all  work  in  manual  training.  By  means  of  pattern  sheets, 
definite  exercises  in  regular  sequence,  and  in  immediate  connection  with  the  Form 
and  Drawing  exercises,  are  provided.  Making  objects  from  the  patterns  also  fur- 
nishes objects  for  study,  as  well  as  opportunity  for  care  and  skill  in  manual  work. 
The  pattern  sheets  are  provided  so  that  accurate  models  may  be  made.  Where 
instruments  are  provided  for  children,  it  will  be  much  better  for  them  to  lay  out 
and  draw  their  own  patterns,  instead  of  using  the  printed  patterns. 


Composition. 


Composition,  as  the  word  is  used  in  art,  is  a  general  term  covering  the  indi- 
vidual worker's  choice  and  arrangement  of  forms  and  colors,  lines  and  spaces,  in 
order  to  perfectly  and  beautifully  express  his  idea  and  carry  out  his  plan.  He 
is  continually  collecting  material  for  this  use,  through  his 
studies  of  nature  and  of  the  art  productions  of  his  fellow- 
workers.  Through  such  studies  he  fills  his  mind  with  con- 
ceptions of  beautiful  forms  and  colors  ;  he  develops  judgment 
regarding  the  appropriateness  of  certain  forms,  colors,  plans, 
and  arrangements  to  certain  ideas  of  use  and  beauty  ;  and  he 
cultivates  his  power  of  idealizing  familiar  things  and  their  relations  to  each  other. 


46 


INTRODUCTION. 


It  is  when  he  himself  composes  a  bit  of  Representp.tion  or  Decoration  or  Construc- 
tion that  he  begins  to  make  truly  creative  use  of  what  he  has  acquired  in  other 
lines  of  his  art-study. 

Composition,  in  a  word,  stands  for  individuality  in  art.  Composition  as  a  fea- 
ture of  art  instruction  stands  for  the  development  of  individual  creative  power  in 
the  art  activities. 

A  study  of  good  composition  already  existing  in  the  various  departments  of 
art  shows  that  there  are  a  few  great,  underlying  principles  on  which  the  best 
workers  of  different  times  and  places  have  consciously  or  unconsciously  agreed. 
These  principles  seem  to  be  fundamental  in  art  just  as  certain  other  principles  are 
fundamental  in  nature.  In  nature-study  children  are  led  to  see  how  certain  princi- 
ples or  laws  keep  the  natural  world  in  beautiful  order,  and  how  a  man's  wise  utiliza- 
tion of  these  laws  in  his  own  work  makes  that  work  effective.  So  in  art-study  chil- 
dren should  be  led  to  see  how  certain  principles  underlie  all  good  composition,  and 
to  utilize  these  same  principles  in  their  own  creative  work. 

Good  composition  results  from  a  harmonious  arrangement  or  grouping  of  parts 
—  each  part  being  subordinate  to  the  whole  and  in  a  pleasing  relation  to  the  other 

parts  —  so  that  the  whole  is  beautiful.  While  this  work  in 
its  result  is  original  and  individual,  there  is  of  necessity  an 
orderly  procedure  underlying  every  composition.  The 
geometric  plan  is  first  determined.  In  pictorial  compo- 
sition, the  geometric  plan  is  simply  the  shape  of  the  space 
to  be  filled  —  some  plane  geometric  figure ;  in  decorative 
composition  the  geometric  plan  may  be  merely  the  shape 
of  the  space  to  be  filled,  it  may  require  in  addition  the 
geometric  laying  out  of  the  repeats,  and  it  may  require 
also  the  geometric  symmetry  of  the  repeats  themselves  ;  in 
constructive  composition,  either  industrial  or  architectural, 
the  third  dimension  may  be  involved,  and  solid  as  well 
as  plane  geometry  may  give  the  geometric  plan. 
^  Having  the  geometric  plan  determined  and  having  decided  on  the  motive,  — 
whether  lines,  spaces,  plant,  landscape,  figure,  etc.,  —  the  great  effort,  the  art  effort, 
is  to  so  present  that  motive  that  the  general  effect  will  be  harmonious,  that  its  hnes 
shall  contrast  agreeably,  and  that  its  spaces  shall  bear  pleasing  relations.  To  secure 
this  the  student,  bearing  in  mind  that  harmonious  proportion  of  the  parts  to  each 
other  and  to  the  whole  is  secured  through  the  simple  laws  of  principality,  opposition, 
and  balance,  works  out  this  problem  in  various  ways  striving  to  show  his  own  con- 
ception of  beauty.     By  these  efforts  and  by  the  study  of  fine  works  of  art,  he  learns 


COMPOSITION. 


47 


the  need  of  breadth,  simplicity,  and  repose.     If  he  is  working  in  decorative  composi- 
tion, he  considers  symmetry,  rhythfti,  and  order. 


^ffi^ 


^S 


Principality  requires  that  one  part  be  more  important  and  the  others  subordi- 
nate, hence  contrast  of  dimension  or  of  value  ensues. 

Opposition  requires  that  there  be  a  variation  or  contrast  in  direction  or  direct- 
ness of  hne  and  in  shape. 

Balance  requires  that  there  be  such  a  mediation  or  reconciliation  of  these  con- 
trasts that  the  whole  effect  will  be  harmonious. 

All  nations  have  shown  their  ideas  of  composition  in  their  paintings,  their 
sculpture,  their  decoration,  and  their  architecture.  To  the  Greeks  we  owe  that 
magnificent  example  of  architectural  composition,  the  Parthenon.  Their  feeling 
for  proportion,  for  space  and  form  relations,  has  never  been  surpassed.  From  the 
great  masters  of  pictorial  art  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  as  well  as 
from  the  builders  of  the  Romanesque,  Gothic,  and  Renaissance  periods,  we  receive 
lessons  in  composition. 

"  In  my  experience,  art  instruction  must  begin  by  awakening  the  perceptions  of  beauty, 
by  causing  an  exercise  of  choice  and  judgment,  by  the  effort  to  originate  something  that  is 
fine,  —  that  reflects  the  personal  thought  or  emotion  of  the  student.  That  is  the  purpose 
of  the  simple  problems  in  elementary  line.  The  pupil  makes  several  designs,  chooses  the 
best,  compares  them  with  similar  things  in  the  art  of  the  world,  and  is  helped  to  perceive 
the  style  and  distinction  of- the  really  fine  things.  By  continually  exercising  his  judgment 
and  personal  feeling,  he  gains  creative  ability  ;  and  when  he  desires  to  express  his  thoughts 
by  representing  nature,  he  has  acquired  a  language  in  which  to  do  it,  and  his  eagerness  to 
do  it  will  lead  him  to  draw  with  enthusiasm.  This  simple  beginning  underlies  Painting,, 
Sculpture,  Architecture,  and  Decoration. 

"  From  the  beginning  this  thought  is  emphasized,  viz. :  that  neither  applied  design 
nor  representation  of  nature  can  be  called  Art  unless  the  fundamental  ideas  of  Proportion. 
Opposition,  Principality,  and  others  have  been  considered  and  appreciated. 

"  The  study  of  composition  means  an  art  education  for  the  entire  people,  for  every 


48 


INTRODUCTION. 


child  can  be  taught  to  compose  — that  is,  to  know  and  feel  beauty  and  to  produce  it  m 
simple  ways."  —  Arthur  W.  Dow. 

"  Flowers,'  by  their  great  variety  of  line  and  proportion,  are  particularly  valuable,  as 
well  as  convenient,  subjects  for  elementary  composition. 


y 

^h^^ 


"  Their  forms  and  colors  have  furnished  themes  for  painters  and  sculptors  since  the 
beginning  of  Art,  and  the  treatment  has  ranged  from  abstractions  to  extreme  realism  :  from 
the  refinements  of  lotus-derived  friezes  to  the  poppy  and  rose  wall-papers  of  the  present 
time. 

"In  flower  composition  as  here  suggested,  there  is  no  intention  of  making  a  design  to 
apply  to  anything  as  decoration,  hence  there  need  be  no  questions  as  to  the  amount  of 
nature's  truth  to  be  introduced.  The  flower  may  be  rendered  realistically,  as  in  some 
Japanese  design,  or  reduced  to  an  abstract  suggestion,  as  in  the  Greek,  without  in  the  least 
affecting  the  purpose  in  view,  viz.,  the  setting  of  its  lines  into  a  space  in  such  a  way  that 
beauty  shall  result  — ■  in  other  words,  making  it  serve  as  a  subject  for  a  composition  exercise. 

"  It  is  essential  that  the  space  should  be  cut  by  the  main  lines ;  a  small  spray  in  the 
middle  of  a  big  oblong,  or  disconnected  groups  of  flowers,  cannot  be  called  compositions ; 
all  the  lines  and  areas  must  be  related  to  one  another  by  connections  and  placing  so  as  to 
form  a  beautiful  whole. 

"Not  a  picture  of  a  flower  is  sought  —  that  can  be  left  to  the  botanist  —  but  rather  an 
irregular  pattern  of  lines  and  spaces,  something  far  beyond  the  mere  drawing  of  a  flowei 
from  nature  and  laying  an  oblong  over  it,  or  vice  versa. 

"  The  instructor  draws  a  flower  in  large,  firm  outlines  on  the  blackboard,  avoiding  con- 
fusing detail,  and  giving  the  character  as  simply  as  possible.  The  pupil  first  copies  the 
instructors  drawing,  then  he  decides  upon  the  shape  into  which  to  compose  this  subject  — 
a  square  or  rectangle  will  be  best  for  the  beginner.  He  makes  several  trial  arrangements 
roughly,  with  pencil  or  charcoal.     Having  chosen  the  best  of  these,  he  improves  and  refines 


1  From  a  book  on  "  Composition,"  now  in  preparation,  by  Arthur  W.  Dow.  The  iUustrations 
given  in  this  section  are  from  the  work  of  Mr.  Dow's  pupils  at  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.  In 
The  Prang  Elementary  Course  of  Art  Instruction,  Drawing-Book  7,  there  is  a  full-page  illustration  (page 
15)  of  Mr.  Dow's  work  in  Flower  Composition. 


COMPOSITION. 


49 


them,  first  on  his  trial  paper,  and  later  by  tracing  with  brush  and  ink  on  thin  Japanese 
paper.     Effort  must  be  concentrated  on  the  arrangement,  not  on  botanical  correctness. 

"  Many  line  compositions  can  be  derived  from  one  flower  subject,  but  each  of  these 
can  in  turn  be  made  the  source  of  a  great  variety  of  designs  by  carrying  the  exercise  farther 
into  the  field  of  Dark-and-Light.  Paint  certain  of  the  areas  black,  and  at  once  a  whole  new 
series  suggests  itself  from  a  single  line  design.  To  the  beauty  of  the  line  is  added  the 
beauty  of  opposing  and  intermingling  masses  of  black  and  white. 


"In  this  part  of  the  work  the  arrangement  of  shapes  of  light  with  shapes  of  dark 
occupies  the  attention,  rather  than  shading,  or  the  rendering  of  shadows.  Hence  the 
flowers  and  leaves  and  stems,  or  parts  of  them,  may  be  black  or  white,  according  to  the 
feeling  of  the  student. 

"  Let  him  choose,  out  of  his  several  drawings,  those  which  he  considers  best.  The 
instructor  can  then  criticise,  pointing  out  the  best  and  the  worst,  and  explaining  why  they 
are  so. 

"  A  mere  aimless  or  mechanical  blackening  of  paper,  without  effort  to  arrange,  will 
result  in  nothing  of  value."  —  Arthur  W.  Dow. 

Mr.  La  Farge  whose  decorative  work  in  Trinity  Church,  Boston,^  whose  stained- 
glass  and  whose  general  composition  show  the  finest  feeling  for  proportion  and  spac- 
ing, writes  of  art  in  "  Letters  from  Japan  "  :  — 

"  I  have  far  within  me  a  belief  that  art  is  the  love  of  certain  balanced  proportions  and 
relations  which  the  mind  likes  to  discover  and  to  bring  out  in  what  it  deals  with,  be  it 
thought  or  the  actions  of  men,  or  the  influences  of  nature,  or  the  material  things  in  which 
necessity  makes  it  to  work.  I  should  then  expand  this  idea  until  it  stretched  from  the 
patterns  of  earliest  pottery  to  the  harmony  of  the  lines  of  Homer.  Then  I  should  say  that 
in  our  plastic  arts  the  relations  of  lines  and  spaces  are,  in  my  belief,  the  first  and  earliest 
desires.     And  again  I  should  have  to  say  that,  in  my  unexpressed  faith,  these  needs  are  as 


1  The  illustrative  pages  in  Drawing-Book  12  of  The  Prang  Elementary  Course  in  Art  Instruction 
give  examples  of  his  composition. 


50  INTRODUCTION. 

needs  of  the  soul,  and  echoes  of  the  laws  of  the  universe,  seen  and  unseen,  reflections  of 
the  universal  mathematics,  cadences  of  the  ancient  music  of  the  spheres. 

•^  For  I  am  forced  to  believe  that  there  are  laws  for  our  eyes  as  well  as  for  our  ears, 
and  that  when,  if  ever,  these  shall  have  been  deciphered,  as  has  been  the  good  fortune  with 
music,  then  shall  we  find  that  all  the  best  artists  have  carefully  preserved  their  instinctive 
obedience  to  these,  and  have  all  cared  together  for  this  before  all. 

"  For  the  arrangements  of  line  and  balances  of  spaces  which  meet  these  underlying 
needs  are  indeed  the  points  through  which  we  recognize  the  answer  to  our  natural  love  and 
sensitiveness  for  order,  and  through  this  answer  we  feel,  clearly  or  obscurely,  the  difference 
between  what  we  call  great  men  and  what  we  call  the  average,  whatever  the  personal  charm 
may  be. 

"  This  is  why  we  remember  so  easily  the  arrangement  and  composition  of  such  a  one 
whom  we  call  a  master —  that  is  why  the  '  silhouette  '  of  a  Millet  against  the  sky,  why  his 
placing  of  outlines  within  the  rectangle  of  his  picture,  makes  a  different,  a  final,  and  decisive 
result,  impressed  strongly  upon  the  memory  which  classifies  it,  when  you  compare  it  with 
the  record  of  the  same  story,  say,  by  Jules  Breton.  It  is  not  the  difference  of  the  fact  in 
nature,  it  is  not  that  the  latter  artist  is  not  in  love  with  his  subject,  that  he  has  not  a 
poetic  nature,  that  he  is  not  simple,  that  he  has  not  dignity,  that  he  is  not  exquisite ;  it 
is  that  he  has  not  found  in  nature  of  his  own  instinct  the  eternal  mathematics  which 
accompany  facts  of  sight.  For  indeed,  to  use  other  words,  in  what  does  one  differ  from 
the  other.?  The  arrangement  of  the  idea  or  subject  may  be  the  same,  the  costume,  the 
landscape,  the  time  of  day,  nay,  the  very  person  represented.  But  the  Millet,  if  we  take 
this  instance,  is  framed  within  a  larger  line,  its  spaces  are  of  greater  or  more  subtle  pondera- 
tion,  its  building  together  more  architectural.  That  is  to  say,  all  its  spaces  are  more  surely 
related  to  ojte  another  and  not  only  to  the  story  told  nor  only  to  the  accidental  occurrence  of 
the  same.     The  eternal  has  been  brought  in  to  sustain  the  transient.   .   .  . 

"  Yes,  the  mere  direction  or  distance  of  a  line  by  the  variation  of  some  fraction  of  an 
inch  establishes  this  enormous  superiority  —  a  little  more  curve  or  less,  a  mere  black  or  white 
or  colored  space  of  a  certain  proportion,  a  few  darks  or  reds  or  blues.     And  now  you  will 

ask.  Do  you  intend  to  state  that  decoration ?     To  which  I  should  say,  I  do  not  mean 

to  leave  my  main  path  of  principles  to-day,  and  when  I  return  we  shall  have  time  to  discuss 
objections.     Besides,  '  I  am  not  arguing ;  I  am  telling  you.'  "  —  John  La  Farge. 

The  following  books,  treating  of  Composition,  may  be  useful  to  teachers  :  — 

Treatise  ofi  Cotnposition.     John  Burnet. 

Composition  in  Pictures.     Susan  Carter. 

The  Graphic  Arts.     P.  G.  Hamerton. 

An  Af'tisfs  Letter  from  Japan.     Consideration  on  Painting.     John  La  Farge. 

The  Genesis  of  Art  Forms.     George  Lansing  Raymond. 

Practical  Treatise  on  Composition.     Harry  Willson. 

Composition.     Arthur  W.  Dow. 


COMPOSITION.  51 


Training  of  the  ytsthetic  Judgment. 

A  twofold  purpose  should  run  through  all  art  training,  namely,  the  development 
of  both  the  creative  and  appreciative  powers  of  the  child.  That  training  which 
aims  purely  to  develop  the  child  to  his  higher  possibilities  as  an  individual  is 
insufficient.  He  needs  as  well  that  training  which  will  make  him  a  desirable  and 
useful  member  of  society. 

While  both  lines  of  work  minister  to  every  activity  in  life,  yet  in  a  special 
sense  the  development  of  the  creative  powers  prepares  the  child  for  his  work  as  a 
producer  —  or  brings  him  to  his  full  powers  as  an  individual. 

The  training  of  his  appreciative  powers,  or  aesthetic  judgment,  prepares  him  for 
his  place  as  a  consumer  —  or  as  a  member  of  society. 

Production  and  Consumption.  —  Every  working  member  of  society  is  in 
a  sense  a  producer.  He  is  a  producer  in  a  special  sense  who  uses  raw  material  of 
any  kind  for  the  manufacture  of  a  product.  While  every  person  in  this  special 
sense  is  not  a  producer,  all  are  consumers,  and  all  are  consumers  of  art  products, 
or  products  resulting  from  the  application  of  Art  to  Industry.  The  common  envi- 
ronment of  everyday  life  cannot  be  supplied  without  dependence  upon  this  creative 
work  of  others.  The  element  of  design  enters  into  everything  made  by  man,  and 
that  design  may  be  either  good  or  bad  ;  therefore  design  as  applied  to  construction, 
the  making  of  things,  affects  the  life  of  all  more  constantly  and  directly  than  the 
more  purely  imaginative  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture. 

All  cannot  as  yet  have  paintings  and  statues  in  their  houses,  but  all  must  have 
houses,  furniture,  and  clothing.  Fortunately,  a  chair  or  table  may  be  truly  a  work 
of  art,  if  it  be  designed  according  to  correct  principles.  Fortunately,  too,  good 
design  is  not  dependent  upon  expensive  material.  Objects  may  even  be  made 
beautiful  for  less  than  is  often  expended  in  making  them  ugly,  for  were  the  florid 
ornamentation  so  often  seen  omitted,  this  expense  would  be  eliminated,  and  the 
object  itself  would  be  better  in  design.  The  responsibility  for  the  quality  of  design 
rests  primarily  with  the  consumer.  The  producer  —  trained  to  his  creative  work, 
may  desire  to  make  truly  artistic  products,  but  he  is  not  wise  to  manufacture  what 
the  public  will  not  buy. 

If  the  consumer  insists  upon  furniture  covered  with  meretricious  ornament  the 
producer  is  obhged  to  supply  it,  or  go  out  of  the  business.  In  any  broad  sense 
the  standard  of  production  can  be  Hfted  only  as  the  aesthetic  judgment  of  society  is 
developed  to  the  point  of  demanding  better  things.      The  producer  and  consumer 


62  INTR  OB  UCTIOJSf. 

are  thus  seen  to  be  mutually  dependent,  for  good  design  in  the  common  surround- 
ings of  life,  and  the  necessity  for  the  development  of  the  aesthetic  judgment  as  an 
inherent  part  of  art  education,  becomes  apparent  at  once. 

How  may  the  Esthetic  Judgment  be  Trained?  —  Are  there  any 
principles  which,  when  understood,  will  enable  us  to  select  with  judgment,  and  to 
surround  ourselves  with  beauty  instead  of  ughness,  and  thus  raise  the  standard  of 
production  by  the  demand  for  good  design  ?  The  selection  of  products  has  for  the 
most  part  been  determined  by  the  mere  personal  preferences  of  the  buyer,  his 
standard  of  value  being  simply  "  I  know  what  I  like."  For  example,  one  is  fond 
of  roses,  and  influenced  by  this  fact  purchases  a  lamp-shade  heavily  decorated  with 
naturalistic  representations  of  his  favorite  flower. 

Or,  one  admires  color  and  sparkle,  and  selects  a  gilt  chair  for  a  reception 
room.  The  universal  admiration  for  feminine  beauty  betrays  another  into  buying  a 
plate  with  a  portrait  of  Madame  Recamier  painted  upon  it.  In  these  instances  the 
judgment  fails  to  remind  the  purchaser  that  the  roses  obscure  the  hght  of  the  lamp, 
that  the  gilt  chair  is  a  palpable  deception,  and  that  it  is  unpleasant  to  spread  food 
upon  even  a  beautiful  countenance.  The  fact  that  the  schoolboy  may  prefer  the 
history  of  "  Sure  Shot  Sam "  to  "  Hiawatha "  does  not  prove  that  it  is  better 
literature.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  choice  of  "  rag-time  "  in  preference  to 
the  "  Fifth  Symphony  "  is  not  evidence  that  it  is  better  music.  Neither  is  the  mere 
personal  preference  for  one  design  rather  than  another  evidence  that  the  design 
chosen  is  good.  These  illustrations  lead  us  to  an  obvious  principle.  Personal 
choice  is  not  the  standard  by  which  the  quality  of  any  art  product  may  be 
determined.  Or,  stated  positively  —  the  aesthetic  quality  of  a  design  must  be 
determined  by  its  relation  to  certain  principles.  These  principles  must  be  simple 
and  of  universal  application,  or  they  cannot  be  permanent  measures  of  value.  The 
value  of  a  design  is  not  determined  by  its  historic  accuracy  of  style.  The  styles  of 
architecture  and  ornament  are  themselves  measured  by  principles.  As  the  principle 
of  number  antedates  and  underlies  all  systems  of  computation,  —  so  the  principles 
of  design  antedate  and  underlie  the  architectural  orders  and  the  grammar  of  orna- 
ment. These  derive  their  authority  only  from  their  exposition  of  principles  of 
design.  To  know  how  to  select  a  good  chair  is  to  know  the  principles  by  which  all 
constructive  design  must  stand  or  fall.  The  principles  involved  in  the  design  of  a 
tea-cup  govern  the  design  of  a  cathedral.  To  help  the  child  to  see  these  principles 
expressed  in  simple  objects  is  the  best  preparation  for  judgment  of  more  complex 
forms  later.  As  a  generalization,  the  saying  of  William  Morris,  "  Keep  nothing  in 
your  house  that  you  do  not  know  to  be  useful  or  believe  to  be  beautiful,"  is  very 


COMPOSITION. 


53 


Yet 


useful.      Another  valuable  definition  of  more  recent  date  is  this  :    "  Good  design  is 
the  solution  of  the  problem  of  utility  in  terms  of  beauty." 

Every  common  object  is  made  to  serve  some  purpose.  It  should  be  made 
of  the  material  and  of  the  form  best  adapted  to  meet  that  purpose.  This  is  an 
axiom,  yet  in  it  are  involved  the  first  two  principles  of  good  design. 

1.  Fitness  of  form  to  function. 

2.  Suitability  of  material. 

3.  Honesty  of  construction. 

These  three  principles  relate  primarily  to  the  use  of  the  object,  for  no  object 
can  be  truly  beautiful  without  these  quaUfications.  There  are  three  other  principles 
which  concern  more  essentially  the  beauty  of  the  object :  they  may  be  called 
Proportion,  Beauty  of  Form,  Beauty  of  Color.  These  six  principles,  however 
expressed,  may  be  regarded  as  the  golden  rule  of  good  design. 

Fitness  of  Form  to  Function.  — This  may  be  illustrated  in  the  schoolroom 
by  any  object  at  hand,  or  by  reference  to  any  common  object  at  home.  Take  for 
example  a  chair.  Consider  first  its  purpose.  All  chairs  are  made  to  sit  in 
one  chair  may  be  good  in  design  for  the  very  quality 
which  makes  another  chair  bad  in  design.  The  easy- 
chair  should  give  a  chance  to  recline,  and  should 
therefore  have  the  back  at  quite  an  obhque  angle, 
while  a  dining-room  chair  so  constructed  would  be 
obviously  unfit  for  its  function.  The  Morris  chair, 
designed  by  William  Morris,  is  an  example  of  excel- 
lent design  in  reference  to  all  these  principles.  The 
back  is  adjustable  by  a  simple  device,  and  the  chair 
can  thus  be  made  to  suit  the  comfort  of  the  user  to 
an  unusual  degree.  The  free  cushions  allow  perfect 
cleanhness.  It  meets  with  equal  success  the  other 
demands  of  good  desigs.  The  material  is  suited  to 
the    purpose ;    the   wood    is   without   ornament,    its 

beauty  being  brought  out  by  the  finish  of  the  natural  wood  itself.  The  construction 
is  so  simple  and  straightforward  that  a  child  may  understand  it.  Here  "  the  problem 
of  utility  "  is  indeed  "  solved  in  terms  of  beauty."  Fitness  of  form  to  function  may 
be  safely  considered  the  most  inclusive  and  fundamental  of  all  the  elements  of  good 
design.  In  a  sense  it  includes  all  the  others.  The  illustration  of  the  Morris  chair  is 
used  because  it  embodies  in  a  simple  form  all  the  principles  mentioned.     Fitness  to 


*«Wl«i#»"w"«i 


Kf"-*" 


54  INTRODUCTION. 

purpose  would  demand  for  the  dining  room  a  much  more  erect  and  formal  chair.  It 
should  be  designed  with  reference  to  the  height  of  a  dining  room  table.  It  should 
be  light  in  order  that  it  may  be  easily  moved.  It  should  be  free  from  dust-collecting 
ornamentation  and  have  a  smooth  surface  to  admit  of  perfect  cleanliness.  Apply 
these  principles  to  some  simple  object  like  a  milk  pitcher.  Fitness  to  purpose 
demands  that  it  be  light  so  it  may  be  Hfted  easily.  It  must  be  of  good  shape  so 
that  the  milk  will  pour  without  spilling.  The  handle  must  be  large  enough  to  take 
hold  of,  and  the  opening  large  enough  to  allow  thorough  cleaning.  The  first  question 
to  ask  of  any  object  in  judging  its  design  is,  What  is  its  purpose?  Then,  Does  its 
form  suit  that  purpose  ? 

Suitability  of  Material.  —  This  is  really  a  corollary  to  the  principles  of  fit- 
ness to  purpose.  Nothing  can  be  truly  fit  for  its  use  unless  made  of  appropriate 
material.  Illustrations  of  unsuitable  material  may  be  found  in  the  plush  covering 
of  seats  in  railway  or  street  cars,  or  in  furniture  for  common  use  in  the  house.  This 
material  so  holds  dust  and  dirt  that  it  is  obviously  unsanitary.  Coverings  of  woven 
straw  or  of  leather  answer  the  needs  of  comfort  and  beauty  quite  as  well,  and  have 
the  quality  of  suitability.  The  paper  lamp-shade  may  be  beautiful  in  itself —  the 
material  is  charming  in  texture  and  color  —  but  its  inflammable  nature  renders  it 
unsuitarble  material  for  that  purpose.  So  with  the  Japanese  lantern  —  it  answers 
every  one  of  the  requirements  except  that  of  suitability  of  material.  The  use  of  the 
candle  renders  it  always  dangerous.  In  form,  proportion  and  color,  it  excels.  In 
suitability,  and  therefore  in  fitness,  it  is  deficient.  Another  illustration  of  material 
beautiful  in  itself,  but  bad  through  misuse,  is  the  selection  of  silks  and  satins  for 
children's  dresses.  The  unsuitability  is  obvious.  A  white  and  gold  book  binding 
may  be  exquisite  in  design,  beautiful  intrinsically,  but  its  tendency  to  show  soil 
renders  it  unsuitable  for  any  purpose  which  requires  much  handling.  Suitability 
concerns  itself  largely  with  considerations  of  cleanliness,  sanitation,  and  safety. 

Honesty  of  Construction.  —  This  means  that  the  structure  of  the  object 
shall  honestly  appear  in  its  form.  This  is  perhaps  the  most  frequently  violated  of 
any  of  the  principles  of  design.  Negative  illustrations  rush  at  once  to  the  mind. 
The  folding-bed  is  a  flagrant  example  of  structural  hypocrisy.  Pretending  to  be  a 
desk  or  a  family  organ  it  unblushingly  confronts  the  undeceived  beholder.  Imitation 
of  one  material  in  another  is  always  unsafe.  "  Tapestry  effects "  in  wall-paper, 
"  silkoline,"  or  cotton  made  to  look  Hke  silk,  basket  or  lace  patterns  on  china  or 
pottery,  wooden  spindles  made  like  twisted  ropes,  all  such  things  violate  the 
principle  of  honest  construction.     Houses  are  frequently  seen  made  of  brick  with  a 


COMPOSITION. 


55 


veneer  of  stone  in  front.  A  house  built  wholly  of  a  cheaper  material  is  better  in 
design  than  a  brick  house  which  tries  to  pass  itself  off  for  stone.  Terra-cotta 
ornament  in  buildings  is  treated  like  carved  stone,  and  cast-iron  window  frames, 
used  everywhere  in  commercial  buildings,  too  often  also  masquerade  as  stone.  A 
simple  straightforward  construction  Hke  that  of  the  Morris  chair  is  the  only  safe 
course.  The  moment  we  apologize  for  structure  by  conceahng  it  we  are  violating  an 
essential  principle  of  design.  This  does  not  mean  that  seams  should  be  outside  and 
the  structure  of  the  object  obtruded  upon  the  eye.  It  merely  means  that  there 
shall  be  no  attempt  to  deceive  the  eye. 

Proportion,  Form,  and  Color.  —  These  may  be  treated  together,  as  it  is 
difficult  to  separate  them  even  for  definition.  Proportion  and  form  are  so  dependent 
upon  use  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  consider  them  abstractly.  Proportion  is  the  har- 
monious relation  of  parts  to  each  other.  All  necessities  may  be  met  and  the  object 
still  be  unpleasing  in  proportion.  Take,  for  instance,  a  pitcher.  All  the  demands 
for  use  might  be  answered  by  the  first  form,  but  the  eye  is  not  pleased.  All  the 
requirements  of  use  are  equally  well  answered  in  the  other  designs,  and  they  have 
also  the  elements  of  proportion  and  good  form. 


Proportion  must  be  judged  by  use.  A  tall,  slender  vase  for  holding  two  or 
three  roses  is  in  beautiful  proportion  for  that  purpose,  while  for  a  pitcher  for  com- 
mon use  it  would  be  bad.  Harmonious  relation  of  parts  expressed  with  grace  of 
line,  make  beauty  inevitable.  |  Color  is  the  most  distinguishable  and  separate  of 
qualities.  Beautiful  color  adds  incalculably  to  the  aesthetic  value  of  any  object. 
But  of  itself  it  is  not  enough  to  make  an  object  beautiful.  An  illustration  of  this  is 
the  wonderful  work  of  the  Tiffliny  Company  in  the  manufacture  of  their  Favrile 
glass.  Here  color  effects  of  surpassing  beauty  have  been  obtained.  When  this 
color  is  added  to  a  beautiful  form  the  effect  is  complete  and  satisfying,  while  the 


56 


INTRODUCTION. 


color  alone  is  not  enough  to  redeem  a  clumsy  form.  An  example  of  good  design  in 
every  point  is  difificult  to  obtain,  and  it  therefore  becomes  all  the  more  essential  to 
look  for  the  good  points  in  each  object,  though  none  will,  perhaps,  qualify  in  all.  A 
chair  that  is  good  in  construction  may  be  covered  with  poor  material.  Let  us  be 
sure  to  recognize  its  positive  quaUty.  A  dish  is  perhaps  excellent  in  everything  but 
decoration.  By  all  means  make  the  most  of  its  good  points,  and  in  every  illustra- 
tion lead  the  children  to  emphasize  the  positive  quality  rather  than  the  negative. 
Criticism  by  appreciation  rather  than  depreciation  is  the  law  by  which  the  aesthetic 
judgment  may  be  trained  on  the  optimistic  and  positive  side.  When  negative 
illustration  serves  to  point  a  positive  principle  it  may  perhaps  be  employed,  but  the 
emphasis  should  always  be  upon  the  points  in  which  objects  meet  the  requirements 
of  good  design.  Let  us  look  for  fitness  and  beauty  as  exempUfied  in  this  design 
for  a  lamp. 

Here,  under  Fitness  of  Purpose,  we  note  that  it  is  stable  in  form.  It  will  not 
easily  tip.  The  handle  is  firm,  large  enough,  and  well  placed.  The  shade  of 
bamboo    and    stretched    silk   is   light   in  weight.     It  is  suitable  in  material,  since 

by  its  shape  and  mechanical  arrangements  the  danger  of 
burning  is  avoided.  It  is  decorated  enough  to  give  charm 
without  obscuring  light,  and  the  decoration  is  flat  and 
appropriate.  The  construction  honestly  appears  through- 
out. The  proportion  and  form  are  simple  and  pleasing, 
and  the  color  of  the  original  enhances  the  effect  of  all  the 
parts.  The  color  of  the  base  is  echoed  more  delicately  in 
the  shade,  bringing  all  the  parts  into  unity.  This  seems  to 
meet  all  the  utihtarian  requirements  of  a  hand  lamp,  which 
must  be  carried  from  room  to  room,  and  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  beauty  as  well.  Another  shape  might 
perhaps  better  answer  other  requirements,  as  for  instance, 
a  lamp  for  the  dining  table  would  necessarily  be  higher, 
in  order  to  throw  light  down,  while  a  reading  lamp  would 
not  need  to  be  so  light  in  weight,  the  consideration  of  use  being  first  in  each  case  in 
determining  the  excellency  of  the  design. 


GENERAL   DIRECTIONS. 


Drawing. 

Freedom  of  Movement.  —  The  importance  of  freedom  of  movement  in  drawing  cannot 
be  overestimated.  It  produces  lightness  of  touch,  quickness  in  execution,  begets  confidence 
in  one's  ability  to  draw,  and  when  acquired  by  a  class  of  pupils,  materially  lessens  the  work 
of  the  teacher.  Experience  among  thousands  of  pupils  shows  conclusively  that  too  much 
stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  need  for  the  early  development  of  freedom  of  movement.  The 
ability  to  sketch  rapidly  and  easily  cannot  be  attained  without  it. 

A  set  of  drawing-books,  finished  as  draughtsmen  would  finish  them,  rarely  indicates 
the  best  teaching.  It  is  of  far  more  importance  that  the  child  should  have  opportunity  to 
work  first  for  freedom  of  movement  rather  than  for  straightness  of  line. 

Position.  —  The  children  should  sit  on  the  left  half  of  the  seat  facing  the  desk.  They 
should  sit  erect,  feet  flat  on  the  floor,  the  eyes  never  nearer  the  paper  than  is  necessary  for 
a  clearer  view  of  the  lines.  They  should  not  bend  forward  unnecessarily,  and  should  learn 
to  work  at  a  distance,  as  thus  they  can  get  a  better  idea  of  their  work  as  a  whole.  In  draw- 
ing at  the  blackboard,  children  should  stand  at  arm's  length  from  the  board. 

Pencil.  —  For  general  work  the  Prang  school  pencil  S.  M.  is  recommended.  For  work 
in  light  and  shade,  color,  pencil-painting,  and  all  methods  of  artistic  rendering  the  S.  M.  is 
especially  effective.  Young  children  should  be  led  to  use  such  a  pencil  with  restraint  so  as 
not  to  get  extreme  effects,  that  is,  the  rendering  too  heavy  and  black.  The  pencil  should 
be  used  for  drawing  only.     Short  pencils  should  not  be  used. 

For  ordinary  work,  the  pencil  should  be  held  lightly  three 
or  four  inches  from  the  point,  so  that  it  will  have  the  support 
of  the  middle  finger  and  be, held  by  the  thumb  and  forefinger, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Lead  the  pupils  to  attain  this 
pencil-holding  from  a  desire  to  draw  freely  and  well. 

The  pupils  should  be  led  to  see  that  frequent  erasing  injures  the  surface  of  the  paper 
and  the  eraser  is  disastrous  when  applied  to  shade  or  shadow,  therefore  it  is  better  that  the 
pupils  should  draw  at  first  with  very  light  lines,  correcting  these  if  necessary  by  drawing 
other  light  lines  over  them.  When  a  satisfactory  outline  (or  blocking  of  the  whole)  is 
secured  then  the  pupil  may  proceed  to  carry  out  the  effect  desired,  any  obtrusively  in- 
correct lines  being  first  taken  out  with  an  eraser. 

57 


58 


INTRODUCTION. 


Yor pencil-paintingwhQXt  the  drawing  is  done  in  mass  with  broad  intermingling  strokes, 
the  pencil  should  be  held  under  the  fingers  as  shown  in  the  second  illustration. 

Practice  Paper.  —  It  is  desirable  that  pupils  should  have  some  practice  in  free  move- 
ment in  connection  with  work  in  the  drawing-book  and  some  of  the  exercises  call  for  quick 
sketches  by  the  pupils  in  order  to  fix  in  the  mind  the  purpose  of  an  exercise,  as  in  the 
pose  or  animal  study,  that  the  lines  of  action  may  be  studied  from  life  as  preliminary  to 

work  in  the  drawing-book.  For  such 
purposes  sheets  of  manila  paper,  six  by 
nine  inches,  are  desirable.^  The  sheets 
may  be  used  on  both  sides  for  drawing. 
Provision  should  be  made  for  at  least 
twenty-five  to  thirty  sheets  for  each  pupil 
for  use  with  one  drawing-book.  The 
teacher  should  guard  against  too  much  practice  as  preliminary  to  any  exercises  in  the 
drawing-book  lest  the  children  lose  interest  and  the  spontaneity  of  their  effort  suffer.  Still 
further,  the  work  in  the  book  should  generally  differ  from  that  upon  practice  paper.  For 
instance,  if  sketches  have  been  made  of  clusters  of  grass  on  practice  paper,  it  is  well  to  use 
a  different  cluster  for  the  drawing-book  page. 


Materials  and  Methods  for  Brush  Work. 

Ink.  —  For  work  in  black  and  white  common  writing  ink  answers  very  well,  though, 
of  course,  india-ink  has  more  body  and  brilliancy. 

India-ink  is  prepared  in  the  most  convenient  form  for  use  in  bottles,  and  Higgins's 
Waterproof  Liquid  Ink  (white  label)  is  recommended. 

India-ink  of  excellent  quality  can  also  be  obtained  in  sticks  directly  from  Japanese 
dealers  at  about  fifteen  cents  a  stick  from  two  to  three  inches  in  length.  When  in  this 
form  it  should  be  prepared  for  use  by  each  child  by  rubbing  an  end  with  a  little  water  in  a 
small  dish  (individual  butter-plate),  adding  more  water  drop  by  drop  until  there  is  enough 
for  the  lesson.  The  proper  consistency  can  soon  be  estimated  by  trial  and  also  the  amount 
needed  for  the  lesson.  The  ink  is  easily  thinned  by  adding  water  and  mixing  it  in  the 
dish.  The  stick  ink  might  be  preferred  in  the  upper  grades  as  it  gives  a  better  effect  than 
common  writing  ink.  When  the  stick  ink  is  used  it  should  be  carefully  dried  and  wrapped 
in  paper  after  using  to  prevent  crumbling  or  cracking. 

Brushes.  —  The  quality  or  size  of  the  brushes  is  not  so  important  as  the  method  of 
using  them.  The  brush  may  be  a  flat  bristle  (for  flat  wash),  or  a  Japanese  pointed  brush, 
or  a  camePs  hair  or  sable  brush  of  medium  size.  If  a  Japanese  brush  is  used,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  bristles  are  partially  held  together  near  the  base  by  a  sort  of  glue.     Care 


1  The  paper  is  put  up  in  packages  of  loo  sheets,  and  may  be  obtained  of  booksellers  and  of  The 
Prang  Educational  Company. 


GENERAL   DIRECTIONS.  59 

should  be  taken  not  to  remove  this  glue  for  outline  work  as  its  presence  helps  to  give 
greater  firmness  to  the  brush ;  for  general  work  in  washes,  its  presence  is  not  desirable. 
Brushes  may  be  kept  singly  in  the  paint-box  or  together,  using  a  box  longer  than  the  brushes 
so  that  the  points  may  not  be  injured.  Brushes  should  never  be  kept  in  water  or  put  in 
the  mouth.  The  paint-box  and  brushes  should  be  put  away  clean.  When  put  away  for 
the  summer  it  is  well  to  add  a  piece  of  camphor. 

Water-Colors.  —  Water-color  paints  are  furnished  to  the  schools  in  various  forms. 
There  are  liquid  paints  in  bottles,  moist  water-color  paints  in  tubes,  and  paint-boxes  with 
cakes  of  paint.  Perhaps  the  most  practical  for  general  use  in  the  public  school  is  a  paint- 
box with  three  colors  of  excellent  quality.^ 

The  scientific  knowledge  of  color  is  of  little  or  no  value  as  a  training  of  the  color  sense 
or  aesthetic  preception  ;  but  by  mixing  or  combining  (by  juxtaposition)  the  three  primary 
colors,  red,  yellow,  and  blue,  the  children  may  obtain  much  practical  knowledge  of  pigments, 
their  possibilities,  and  their  limitations. 

The  paraphernalia  for  such  work  should  be  as  simple  as  possible,  so  as  to  reduce  the 
time  required  in  handling  it,  and  also  the  expense.  One  lesson  a  week,  taking  the  time  of 
two  periods,  is  better  than  two  shorter  lessons.  Large  heavy  cups  or  small  bowls  may  be 
used  for  water  —  distributed  by  monitors  and  filled  by  the  teacher  from  a  long-nosed  vessel, 
such  as  a  coffee-pot.  With  care  one  supply  of  water  will  be  sufficient  for  a  lesson.  The 
papers  may  be  white  or  slightly  tinted.  An  American  drawing  paper  answers  every  pur- 
pose ;  the  manila  practice  paper  is  good. 

For  all  line  work  in  ink  or  water-color  the  brush  should  be  held  as  nearly  vertical  as 
possible,  with  the  fingers  slightly  resting  upon  the  paper  and  the  whole  arm  moved  instead 
of  merely  the  fingers.  Broad  washes  are  obtained  by  charging  the  brush  with  considerable 
water  and  color  and  working  with  the  side  and  not  the  point  of  the  brush.  To  obtain  con- 
trol and  power  of  expression,  it  is  well  to  encourage  even  young  children  to  use  the  brush 
in  both  ways. 

How  to  Use  the  Brush.  —  For  practice  with  the  point  of  the  brush  it  is  well  for  children 
to  reproduce  borders  which  have  been  previously  laid  with  sticks,  or  perhaps  drawn,  as  this 
will  not  only  keep  a  direct  connection  with  other  work,  but  will  give  excellent  practice  in 
handling.  The  constant  and  laborious  drill  which  Japanese  children  are  obliged  to  go 
through  in  order  to  learn  to  write  their  peculiar  characters  with  ease  and  freedom  and  cor- 
rectness is  undoubtedly  a  great  means  in  developing  their  mastery  of  the  pencil  and  brush 
in  their  characteristic  art.  The  Japanese  do  not  rest  the  hand  even  on  the  fingers,  but  move 
the  whole  arm,  holding  the  pencil  and  brush  vertical. 

If  children  can  draw  with  the  brush  without  first  sketching  the  leading  lines  with 

1  The  Prang  Water-Color  Box  No.  i  is  recommended.  This  box  contains  three  cakes  of  fine  quality 
and  e.xtra  size,  —  one  each  of  carmine,  ultramarine,  and  mineral  yellow.  The  colors  work  easily  and 
smoothly  and  mix  readily  into  secondaries,  tertiaries,  and  mtermediates  and  broken  colors.  They  are  put 
up  in  attractive  boxes  with  hinged  covers.  Two  quill  brushes  of  good  quality  and  generous  size,  with 
wooden  handles,  are  included  in  each  box.  The  inside  of  the  box  cover  is  finished  for  use  as  a  palette 
with  three  divisions. 


60  INTRODUCTION. 

pencil,  it  will  not  be  well  to  repress  such  eflfort.  Young  children  are  less  self-conscious 
than  older  ones,  and  if  technical  results  are  not  expected  beyond  their  power  to  produce 
they  will  show  great  courage  and  often  surprising  ability.  They  should,  however,  think 
carefully  before  making  a  line  and  perhaps  practise  the  movement  just  over  the  paper,  before 
making  the  stroke.  A  tactful  teacher  will  see  ways  to  gently  guide  or  restrain,  but  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  especially  desirable  in  all  this  work  that  the  children  should 
have  as  much  freedom  as  possible.  It  is  not  direct  results  that  we  should  expect,  but  the 
development  of  power. 

Sketching  the  outline  is  necessary  in  some  examples  of  historic  ornament  or  decora- 
tive design.  In  order  to  avoid  erasing  upon  the  paper,  which  seriously  injures  the  surface 
for  water-color  or  ink,  it  is  well  to  have  the  pupils  sketch  the  design  first  upon  thin  paper 
and  then  transfer  to  the  sheet  which  is  to  receive  the  color  or  ink. 

How  to  Use  Water-Colors.  —  Washes  may  be  laid  perfectly  flat  by  working  with  the 
brush  full  of  wet  color,  beginning  at  the  top  of  the  figure  and  carrying  the  color  across  the 
enclosing  space  from  left  to  right,  inclining  the  paper  slightly  and  dragging  the  color  down 
as  it  pools.  The  excess  of  color  at  the  lower  edge  may  be  lifted  with  the  bru.  h  if  the  brush 
is  nearly  dry. 

If  the  first  wash  does  not  produce  a  tone  of  sufficient  depth,  another  or  several  others 
may  be  added,  taking  care  that  one  wash  is  thoroughly  dry  before  applying  another. 

For  practice  in  laying  flat  washes  the  children  are  much  interested  in  filling  squares, 
oblongs,  circles,  triangles,  quatrefoils,  trefoils,  etc.  These  decorative  motives  may  be 
painted  and  the  enclosed  spaces  filled  by  the  children  ;  they  may  be  drawn  by  the  teacher 
(by  drawing  one  sheet  carefully  and  pricking  through  many  sheets  to  secure  proper  dimen- 
sions and  connecting  points  by  lines  or  curves)  or  the  children  may  color  their  own  draw- 
ings.^    The  hektograph  is  also  a  great  aid  to  teachers. 

A  graded  wash  from  the  full  tone  to  a  pale  tint  may  be  laid  by  starting  with  a  brush 
full  of  color  (very  wet)  and  carrying  the  tone  as  far  down  as  the  full  depth  of  the  color  is 
desired,  then  by  adding  water  and  no  more  color  every  time  the  brush  starts  from  the  left 
to  the  right,  the  full  tone  will  change,  giving  a  graded  effect  ending  in  a  pale  tint.  Long 
vertical  oblongs  are  excellent  for  this  exercise. 

Blotted  washes  are  made  by  alternating  the  full  depth  of  a  color  with  a  tint  of  the 
same  color  added  at  irregular  intervals.  Sometimes  different  colors  are  used,  as  Prussian 
or  ultramarine  blue  and  touches  of  emerald  green  or  raw  sienna,  thus  producing  stained- 
glass  effects.  This  work  is  delightful  for  color  composition.  Simple  sky  effects  may  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  a  blue  wash,  lifting  the  color  in  places  by  means  of  the  brush  to 
simulate  clouds. 

Practice  in  laying  washes  is  very  essential  as  a  preliminary  to  the  study  and  render- 
ing of  examples  of  historic  ornament  and  original  design. 

Color  for  the  washes  may  be  prepared  or  mixed  in  the  depressions  for  that  purpose 

1  The  Prang  Outline  for  Color  Work.  These  consist  of  28  different  decorative  examples,  lightly 
printed  on  heavy  white  paper,  suitable  for  water-color  washes.  The  sheets  are  6x6,  one  figure  only  on 
each  sheet.     Blank  sheets  of  the  same  size  can  also  be  supplied  for  optional  exercises. 


GENERAL   DIRECTIONS.  61 

on  the  inner  surface  of  the  lid  of  the  paint-box.     If  moist  color  in  tubes  is  used  special 
pans  are  necessary  for  mixing. 

The  effect  of  the  juxtaposition  of  colors  may  be  practically  demonstrated  by  surround- 
ing squares  or  circles  of  the  same  color  with  different  colors,  as,  for  example,  surrounding 
a  red  square  with  yellow,  another  red  square  with  orange,  and  so  on  with  blue,  green,  and 
violet.  The  children  will  thus  see  for  themselves  the  change  in  effect.  (These  same 
experiments  may  be  carried  out  with  colored  paper,  the  children  cutting  the  decorative 
shapes  and  thereby  gaining  much  in  manual  dexterity.) 

Compositions  of  flowers  or  sprays  of  leaves,  budding  twigs  or  seed  vessels,  within  an 
enclosing  space,  as  a  circle,  square,  or  oblong,  may  be  painted  in  early  work  in  mono- 
chrome, as,  for  example,  in  quite  a  full  tone  of  blue,  the  blue  being  modified  in  later  stages 
with  enough  of  red  and  yellow  to  neutralize  it.  The  blue  of  Canton  china  is  an  excellent 
tone  for  such  work. 

Landscape  composition  may  be  well  carried  out  in  several  values  in  ink  or  water-color, 
keeping  the  washes  very  flat.  This  flat  treatment  is  perfectly  satisfactory  to  the  child,  and, 
by  dealing  in  clear  washes  handled  directly,  muddy  combinations  are  avoided. 

tVhen  more  pictorial  treatment  is  attempted,  the  same  direct  treatment  should  be 
encouraged  and  the  children  led  to  see  the  value  of  using  as  pure  color  as  possible.  The 
best  artists,  at  present,  use  very  few,  if  any,  brown,  gray,  or  any  so-called  neutral  pigments,^ 
but  depend  for  such  effects  upon  the  juxtaposition  of  pure  colors  or  upon  the  mixing  of  red, 
yellow,  and  blue  with  a  dash  here  and  there  of  pure  color.  A  clear  sunset  sky  may  be  vivid 
with  yellow  and  red,  while  against  it  the  trees  are  very  dark  green  and  in  some  places  very 
deep  blue.  The  artist  will  mix  the  colors  very  little,  but  while  working  rapidly  will  lift  the 
wet  color  in  one  place  nearly  off  the  paper  and  add  depth  of  color  in  another,  suggesting 
grays,  violets,  and  neutral  tones  by  the  juxtaposition  of  colors  which  produce  their  effect.. 
This  preserves  the  richness  of  the  colors  and  their  depth  and  brilliancy. 

It  is  not  meant  by  this  that  "outdoor  effects"  should  be  sought  as  shown  in  the 
works  of  Manet,  Monet,  and  others  where  pure  colors  are  juxtaposed  in  small  masses,  the 
pictures  to  be  viewed  at  a  distance.  It  is  meant,  however,  that  the  clearer  and  purer  the  pig- 
ments are  used  the  more  brilliant  is  the  result,  and  in  decorative  or  pictorial  work  gray 
(and  various  broken  colors)  can  be  produced  not  only  by  the  juxtaposition  of  colors,  but 
also  by  working  as  directly  as  possible  from  the  paints,  keeping  the  brush  full  of  color  and 
water  and  letting  the  color  blend  in  the  brush  or  on  the  paper  rather  than  doing  much  of 
the  mixing  on  the  pan.  The  effects  produced  in  modern  stained-glass  are  good  illustra- 
tions of  such  a  use  of  color. 

The  mixing  of  colors  and  the  use  of  flat  washes,  both  so  necessary  for  decorative 
effects,  will  lead  the  children  to  see  the  results  of  various  combinations  of  color. 

When  expressing  in  a  pictorial  and  not  a  decorative  way,  the  work  should   be  as 

1  An  artist's  box  usually  contains  more  than  one  yellow,  red,  or  blue,  with  very  few  neutrals.  A 
master  of  technique  can  use  almost  any  pigment  or  combination  of  pigments,  and  produce  good  results, 
because  he  knows  just  what  effects  he  desires  to  bring  out  and  just  how  far  it  is  safe  to  combine  the 
pigments.     But  children  without  this  experience  are  safer  with  a  very  simple  palette  and  no  neutrals. 


62  INTRODUCTION. 

individual  as  possible,  that  is,  the  children  should  express  as  they  individually  see.  It 
would  be  a  mistake  for  the  teacher  to  give  directions  or  definite  advice  as  to  what  colors 
to  combine  or  juxtapose  to  give  the  exact  tint  or  tone  of  a  flower,  leaf,  or  stem,  as  different 
children  may  see  or  feel  the  color  differently.  One  child  sees  green  in  the  shadows  or  a 
glow  in  the  reflected  light  and  should  express  what  he  sees  as  well  as  he  can.  One  child 
sees  red  in  the  stem  and  he  puts  it  there ;  another  sees  the  same  part  as  brown ;  into  his 
red  he  touches  a  bit  of  blue  and  perhaps  of  yellow.  In  such  work  children  should  be 
encouraged  to  work  as  much  as  possible  directly  from  the  paint,  avoiding  much  mixing 
and  yet  keep  the  color  very  wet. 

If  the  teacher  can  possibly  do  it,  it  would  be  well  to  study  into  the  methods  of  treat- 
ing water-color  when  used  decoratively  and  pictorially,  practising  in  both  methods.  It  will 
be  a  fascinating  study,  and  the  teacher  will  be  well  repaid  in  knowing  better  how  to  help  the 
•children. 


THE   PRANG   ELEMENTARY   COURSE 


IN 


ART    INSTRUCTION. 


PLAN  OF  THE  SEBIES.  65 


PURPOSE   OF  THE   PRANG   COURSE   IN   ART   INSTRUCTION. 


The  purpose  of  The  Prang  Course  in  Art  Instruction  is  to  lead  the  child 
through  a  study  of  form  and  color,  as  manifested  in  nature  and  in  art,  to  the  use  of 
his  own  individual  creative  ability  through  expression  by  pencil  and  by  brush  in 
terms  of  art.     In  the  first  two  primary  years  of  school,  this  purpose  is  developed  — 

By  exercises  in  modeling, 

By  acquainting  the  children  with  type  forms  and  shapes  through  such  occupations  as 
building,  arrangement,  paper  folding  and  cutting,  etc., 

By  exercises  with  color  tablets,  colored  paper,  and  the  brush  to  develop  color  percep- 
tion and  expression. 

By  observation  of  fine  pictures  suited  to  their  grade, 

By  imaginative  drawing  stimulated  by  well-selected  quotation,  with  some  simple 
attempts  at  composition,  and 

By  free  drawing  from  the  pose,  from  animals,  from  grasses  and  flowers,  and  from 
models  and  objects. 

All  these  exercises  stand  in  close  relation  to  eacn  other  in  their  appeal  to  the 
child  through  interest,  and  in  their  progressive  nature. 

After  the  first  two  years,  children  are  prepared  for  more  conscious  effort ;  as 
their  experience  widens,  they  come  to  realize  that  their  own  drawing  fails  to  express 
their  ideas  and  to  reach  their  ideals.  They  desire  to  know  how  others  draw  and 
are  eager  for  more  definite  instruction.  To  meet  this  desire  and  to  steadily  develop 
their  creative  power  along  sequential  lines,  more  definite  means  are  required. 

The  Prang  Elementary  Course  in  Art  Instruction,  consisting  of  a  series  of 
drawing-books  and  manuals,  provides  such  means.  In  this  course,  the  work  has 
three  interrelated  and  complementary  fines,  —  observation  of  form  and  color  in 
objects  and  the  graphic  record  of  this  observation  —  observation  of  works  of  art  — 
the  utilization  of  all  these  observations  in  creating  beautiful  compositions. 

The  exercises  have  been  planned  with  relation,  on  the  one  hand,  to  their  near- 
ness to  the  child,  to  his  interest,  and  to  their  adaptation  to  his  growing  powers  and 
capabilities,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  their  provision  for  opening  a  wider  horizon, 
and  for  developing  richer  concepts  than  his  ordinary  experience  would  furnish,  that 
he  may  be  thus  incited  to  individuality  in  beautiful  creations.  From  this  statement 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  vital  feature  in  all  this  work  is  the  development  of  the  crea- 
tive activity  of  the  child  toward  the  production  of  the  beautiful. 


66  TEACHER'' S  MANUAL. 

With  this  ultimate  purpose,  the  authors  have  endeavored  — 

1.  a.  To  come  in  touch  with  the  child  through  things  that  are  near  him  —  that  appeal 

to  him  —  through  the  study  of 
•  children, 
animals, 
plants, 

familiar  objects, 
good  drawings  and  pictures. 

d.  To  lead  him  to  appreciation  of  beauty  by  the  selection  of  beautiful  examples 

and  aspects  of  all  these  objects. 
c.  To  enlarge  his  horizon  and  furnish  him  with  new  concepts  and  new  materia! 

for  creative  imagination  by  giving  him  objects  that  are  new  to  him,  but  kindred 

to  those  which  he  already  knows. 

2.  To  aid  him  to  classify  his  concepts  so  that  they  may  stand  in  his  mind  in  the 

proper  relation  to  each  other  and  be  easily  at  his  command. 

3.  To  incite  him  through  his  own  study  of  objects  and  of  artistic  examples  to  use  the 

concepts  thus  gained  to  make  new  creations,  which  shall  show  his  own  feeling 
for  the  beautiful. 
These  aims  furnish  the  key  to  the  sequence  of  the  exercises  in  The  Prang  Ele- 
mentary Course  in  Art  Instruction. 


General  Plan  of  the  Series. 

The  Prang  Elementary  Course  in  Art  Instruction  is  intended  to  cover  the 
time  from  the  third  to  the  eighth  years  of  school  life. 

As  different  periods  of  promotion  prevail  in  different  towns,  some  promoting 
half-yearly,  and  others  yearly,  the  drawing-books  of  this  series  are  issued  in  two 
forms  —  one  form  giving  the  work  of  a  half-year  in  a  book,  the  other  form  giving 
the  work  of  a  whole  year  in  a  book.  The  half-year  books  are  designated  by  num- 
bers, Nos.  I,  2,  3,  4,  etc.;  the  year  books  are  designated  by  years,  Third  Year, 
Fourth  Year,  etc.  The  drawing-books  are  accompanied  by  Manuals  for  teachers, 
equally  available  for  the  half-year  or  the  year  drawing-books.  Each  drawing-book 
contains 

Illustrative  Pages  showing  the  work  of  masters. 
Drawing  Pages  giving  fine  examples  and  sequence  of  work. 

Illustrative  Pages.  —  The  illustrative  pages  are  given  to  show  examples  of  good 
art  by  acknowledged  masters,  which  will  not  only  give  pleasure  to  the  children,  but 
will  also  show  them  that  there  are  very  many  ways  of  drawing,  that  it  is  not  neces- 


PLAN   OF  THE  SERIES. 


67 


-sary  always  to  express  outline  and  light  and  shade  in  the  same  way ;  but  that  the 
great  point  is  to  have  first  thought  and  feeling,  then  study  and  training,  each 
enlarging  the  possibilities  of  the  other. 

The  wide  range  in  these  illustrative  pages  gives  great  variety  of  style  and 
rendering,  encouraging  freedom  and  originality  in  the  pupils'  own  work.  They  show 
admirable  technique  with  pencil,  pen  and  ink,  charcoal  and  brush.  Some  are  in 
pure  outline,  some  show  study  for  masses  of  light  and  dark  and  of  color,  others 
show  light  and  shade  simply  expressed. 

Examples  are  given  from  the  work  of  both  old  masters  and  artists  of  the 
■day  :  — 


Da  Vinci, 

Raphael, 

Van  Dyck, 

Rembrandt, 

Landseer, 

Millet, 

Barye, 

Le  Rolle, 

William  Hunt, 


Wm.  Hamilton  Gibson, 
John  La  Faroe, 
Elihu  Vedder, 
Abbott  Thayer, 
John  S.  Sargent, 
Edwin  H.  Blashfield, 
Ross  Turner, 
C.  D.  Gibson, 
Herbert  Adams, 
WiNSLOw  Homer, 


F.  S.  Church, 
Arthur  W.  Dow, 
C.  H.  Woodbury, 
Edith  Clark, 
Lucy  Fitch  Perkins, 
Anna  Klumpke, 
Tanyu, 

HiROSHIGE, 

HoKUSAi's  Daughter. 


There  are  also  illustrations  of  the  finest  examples  of  architecture  in  the  various 
styles. 

Drawing  Pages.  —  The  illustrations  on  the  drawing  pages  give  help  in  drawing 
from  nature  —  from  plant,  animal,  bird,  and  insect  life,  and  from  the  human  figure, 
from  familiar  objects,  and  from  simple  effective  buildings ;  —  from  type  models 
singly  and  combined,  in  various  positions  ;  —  and  from  historic  ornament  from  the 
flat,  relief,  and  round,  both  detached  and  in  interesting  applications  in  architecture, 
ceramics,  etc.  They  include  also  examples  of  pictorial,  decorative,  and  industrial 
composition.     Working-drawings,  patterns,  and  views  are  clearly  illustrated. 

The  illustrations  on  the  drawing  pages  are  printed  to  give  pupils  good  examples 
of  form,  line,  and  composition,  to  interest  them  in  the  work  of  others,  to  lead  to  a 
higher  standard  of  excellence  than  exists  in  the  individual,  and  to  be  a  stimulus  and 
help  to  the  pupils  by  their  suggestiveness  as  to  subject  and  as  to  manner  of  render- 
ing. They  assist  in  providing  a  regular  sequence  of  study  and  save  time  of  teacher 
and  pupil.  Good  copies  are  as  necessary  and  helpful  to  the  child  as  art-studies  to 
the  adult.     In  some  cases  the  children  may  gain  much  by  copying,  although  the 


68  TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 

examples  are  of  such  a  character  and  so  arranged  that  there  is  abundant  opportunity 
on  every  page  for  free,  original,  and  individual  work. 

Application  in  Other  Studies.  —  As  will  readily  be  seen,  the  use  of  these  text- 
books will  be  of  great  practical  value  in  securing  goo^  drawing  in  other  studies. 
The  examples  given  include  many  which  are  immediately  suggestive  of  good  com- 
position and  rendering  in  the  sketching  of  specimens  studied  in  Elementary  Science 
lessons  (botany,  zoology,  entomology,  geology,  etc.),  the  sketching  of  historic  build- 
ings and  furniture,  and  of  objects  interesting  in  geography ;  the  sketching  of 
buildings  and  scenes  associated  with  the  study  of  literature,  and  the  imaginative 
illustration  of  poems  and  stories,  including  the  human  figure. 

Mediums  for  Drawings.  —  It  is  assumed  that  in  most  schools  the  lead  pencil 
will  be  the  most  available  medium  for  drawing.  The  drawing-book  pages  present, 
however,  a  paper  which  can  be  used  for  brush  work,  or  for  pen  and  ink  if  desired. 

Color.  —  Opportunities  are  given  for  the  expression  of  color  in  three  ways  :  — 

By  pencil-painting,  as  shown  in  certain  examples  of  pose-drawing,  drawing  of 
animal  life,  foliage,  and  still-life,  and  historic  ornament. 

By  the  use  of  colored  papers,  cut  and  mounted  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
historic  ornament  and  of  decorative  design. 

By  the  use  of  water-colors. 

NATURE   OF  THE   WORK. 

Throughout  the  series  each  pupil  is  encouraged  to  express  himself  freely  and 
according  to  his  own  feeling,  and  at  the  same  time  he  is  offered  the  broadening  and 
enriching  influence  of  what  has  been  done  by  masters  in  art ;  so  that  while  on  the 
one  hand  he  is  growing  in  individual  power  to  express  by  drawing,  on  the  other 
hand  he  is  gaining  through  acquiring  more  and  more  of  thought  and  beauty  to 
express.  The  creative  powers  are  stimulated  and  each  child  learns  to  feel  that  he 
himself  has  something  of  his  own  to  tell  with  pencil  or  brush. 

The  exercises  require  drawing 

From  Nature,  From  Art  Examples, 

From  Objects  Made  by  Man,  From  Memory, 

to  culminate  in  composition  —  the  work  of  the  creative  imagination. 

STUDY   OF   FORM  AND   COLOR. 

In  the  first  two  primary  years  the  children  have  selected  the  models  of  type  forms 
from  their  groups  of  objects,  have  built  with  them,  have  handled  and  moved  them, 


PLAN   OF  THE   SERIES.  69 

have  arranged  them,  have  imagined  them  to  be  all  kinds  of  familiar  things,  have 
talked  about  them  and  have  drawn  them  until  the  sphere,  cube,  and  cyUnder,  and 
their  relations,  the  ellipsoid,  ovoid,  the  prisms,  the  cone,  the  pyramid,  and  vase  form 
have  become  not  only  as  "household  words"  in  the  children's  speech,  but  through 
pleasant  associations  have  also  come  to  be  mental  companions,  which  are  summoned 
at  will.  The  work  now  given  in  form  will  be  such  as  to  keep  in  remembrance  these 
types  and  also  to  lead  to  their  further  study. 

In  a  like  way  in  their  primary  years  through  a  loving,  happy  study  of  grass  and 
sky,  of  leaf  and  flower,  and  of  types  of  color,  the  children  have  learned  to  know  and 
to  feel  the  colors  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  and  violet  in  normal  and  lighter 
tones.  They  are  now  carried  farther  in  color  study  and  expression,  by  the  use  of 
colored  paper  and  of  the  brush. 

By  this  study  of  form  and  color,  the  pupils  gain  fine  material  for  use  in  ex- 
pressing their  ideas  of  composition. 

If  we  should  wait  until  the  pupils  were  equal  to  producing  drawings  which 
would  compare  not  unfavorably  with  the  examples  in  the  books,  even  Book  i 
would  not  be  appropriate  for  young  children.  We  must  put  aside  the  idea  that 
ability  to  draw  well  can  come  as  any  immediate  result  of  studying  good  examples  or 
of  drawing  from  objects.  There  may  be  art  feeling  in  the  simplest  and  crudest  effort, 
while  it  may  be  a  poor  drawing  from  the  adult  or  technical  standpoint.  These 
books  with  their  beautiful  illustrations  will  fail  in  the  inspiration  they  might  other- 
wise give  if  the  children  are  forced  beyond  their  powers. 

Pupils  will  gain  in  individual  expression  and  appreciation  by  seeing  beautiful 
things,  just  as  they  gain  along  similar  lines  by  hearing  and  reading  fine  examples  in 
literature.  Therefore,  in  order  that  the  children  may  develop  in  a  natural  manner, 
it  is  hoped  that  the  teacher  will  accept  with  tranquillity  even  very  crude  results,  if 
they  express  the  best  efforts  of  the  pupils. 


BOOKS    7   AND  8. 

SIXTH  YEAR. 


GENERAL   PLAN    OF   EXERCISES   FOR   THE   SIXTH  YEAR. 

Books  7  and  8.  —  Sixth  Year  Book.     Showing  their  Purpose, 
Sequence,  and  Interrelation. 


The  exercises  for  the  Sixth  Year  are  chosen  to  open  to  the  pupil  more  widely 
still  than  in  previous  years  the  world  of  nature  and  of  art,  by  the  presentation  of 
the  drawings  of  artists,  and  of  exercises  for  drawing  from  life,  and  from  familiar 
and  beautiful  objects.  These  exercises  appeal  to  him  through  his  innate  delight  in 
beauty  of  form  and  color,  —  a  beauty  resulting  from  simplicity,  harmony,  and 
repose — and  thus  lead  him  to  creative  activity. 

The  exercises  include  the  following  :  — 

Branches  and  berries. 

Flowers. 

Landscape  —  window  study. 


From  Nature. 


■  Life  in  growth. 


Figure  studies. 
.  Animal  studies. 


I  Life  in  growth,  action, 


J 


and  feeling. 


Association. 
r  Idealization    and 
struction. 


From  Art. 


con- 


Tangential 


Familiar  and  beautiful  objects. 
Fine  buildings. 
Type  forms. 

Working  drawings  —  views,  sections,  plans, 
\        patterns,  and  development. 
Beautiful  objects. 

Historic  Ornament  —  Egyptian,  Greek. 
Historic    architecture  —  drawings,     capitals, 
plans. 

Space  relations  in  mouldings,  doorways. 
Space  relations  in  flower  forms  and  simple 

landscapes. 
Patterns  of  type  forms  and  objects. 
Plans  of  rooms. 

Brackets  —  constructive  design. 
Decorative  arrangement. 

These  exercises  are  classified  generally  as  above,  yet  all  are  closely  interrelated 
as  pages  76-79  show.     To  maintain  closely  this  interrelation,  the  illustrations  on  the 

73 


Creative  Work 
BY  Pupils. 


Rhythm  and  beauty. 
Radiation 
union. 
Space  distribution 


Individual  power. 


74 


TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 


drawing-book  pages  were  prepared  with  reference  to  more  than  one  subject ;  there- 
fore the  same  illustration  sometimes  occurs  on  pages  76-79  in  more  than  one 
connection. 


Nature.  —  Plant  Life.  —  Outdoor  Study. 


Book  7,  p.  3. 


Book  7,  p.  4. 


^ 

f 

f,J 

I 

if 

Boc 

j 
)k 

8,  p.  12 

The  study  of  nature  is  seen  in  the  exercises  on  berries,  flowers,  and  leaves,  and 
in  the  landscape  exercises  and  in  the  window  study.  The  study  of  nature  is  taken 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year. 


Familiar  and  Beautiful  Objects. 


I — ii 


Book  7,  p.  6. 


Book  7,  p.  7. 


Book  8,  p.  4. 


B^ 


Book  8,  p.  3. 


Book  8,  p.  6. 


The  study  of  simple,  familiar,  and  beautiful  objects  is  given  in  the  wall  and  the 
columns,  in  the  books  and  chair,  in  the  pottery  forms,^  and  in  the  cylinders,  brack- 
ets, etc.,  used  for  the  constructive  work. 


1  The  Prang  Educational  Company  has  had  manufactured  abroad,  expressly  to  their  order,  a  large 
variety  of  pottery  and  basket-ware  forms,  to  furnish  the  schools  with  beautiful  modifications  of  the  simple 
type  forms,  embodied  in  vases  and  other  interesting  objects,  made  additionally  attractive  by  good  color. 


GENERAL   PLAN   OF  EXERCISES. 


75 


The  Pose  and  Animals. 


fy 
t^^' 

m- 

t 

0^' 

Book  7,  p.  I. 


Book  7,  p.  2. 


'"^mx 


Book  8,  p.  5. 


A  human  being  is  the  object  which  is  the  nearest  to  the  pupil,  being  related  to 
him  by  life,  action,  and  emotion  kindred  to  his  own.  Therefore  the  pose  of  a  figure 
is  given.  This  exercise  is  related  to  the  special  interests  of  the  child  through 
appeal  to  experience  —  and  to  leaves,  fruits,  flowers,  and  animals  through  the  life 
principle.  The  pose  appears  again  in  other  illustrations.  Next  in  nearness  are 
animals  —  domestic  animals  are  especially  studied  in  this  year. 


Type  Forms. 


B 


Book  7,  p.  6. 


Book  7,  p.  7. 


tnio 


m 


a 


D 

iDl 

Book  8,  p.  8. 


li^^^ 


.m 

Book  8,  p.  9. 


The  teacher  should  note  that  the  idea  of  type  form  underlies  all  the  exercises 
of  the  year.  They  are  especially  called  for  on  two  pages.  They  are  illustrated  on 
other  pages,  and  form  the  basis  for  simplicity  of  choice  of  objects. 


Decoration. 

The  pages  of  ornament  appeal  to  the  pupil  through  simplicity  and  rhythm, 
through  interest  in  familiar  ornaments,  rosettes,  etc.,  through  the  symbolism,  orna- 


76 


teacher's  manual. 


ment,  and  history  of  the  Egyptians  and  Greeks,  and  through  original  design  for 
units,  borders,  and  surface  coverings. 

They  are  related  to  types  of  form  and  to  plane  figures  through  the  circle,  square, 
triangle,  and  simple  rectangular  and  parallel  effects,  produced  with  both  curved  and 
straight  lines. 

In  these  pages  there  are  introduced  borders,  units,  and  figures  complete  in 
themselves,  some    of  which   can   be   discovered   by  the  pupils  in  their  daily  sur- 


roundings. 


^^ 


^y  ^M^^^ 


'^m 


Book  7,  p.  ID. 


Book  7,  p.  12. 


Book  7,  p.  13. 


Book  8,  p.  6. 


Book  7,  p.  14. 


^mm 


Book  8,  p.  7. 


The  examples  of  historic  ornament  are  also  very  closely  related  to  composition, 
furnishing  very  fine  examples  of  space  relations.  They  are  to  be  especially  studied 
with  reference  to  beauty  produced  by  spacing  and  proportion. 


Working-Drawings. 

One  of  the  chief  ways  in  which  the  creative  faculty  may  be  exercised  for  social 
well-being  and  for  beauty  is  through  the  subject  of  Construction,  which  furnishes 
through  its  various  drawing  conventions  the  graphic  language  for  industry  and 
manufacture.  Looking  forward  to  this  end,  the  exercises  in  making  working-draw- 
ings of  the  simple  types  and  kindred  objects  which  appeal  to  the  child  are  given. 
These  connect  directly  with  the  type  forms,  and  with  objects  familiar  and  pleasing 
by  association. 


GENERAL  PLAN   OF  EXERCISES. 


11 


Individual  creation  in  space  relations  through  the  division  of  spaces  by  vertical 
and  horizontal  lines  for  paneling,  and  the  use  of  simple  landscape  features  and  of 
flowers  as  motives  is  definitely  called  for.  Examples  showing  the  general  nature 
of  this  work  are  given  here. 


prnhn      ^    @ 
m  Q     ^ 


Book  8,  p.  8. 


Book  8,  p.  II. 


Space  Relations. 

The  development  of  the  creative  power  of  the  child  in  the  production  of  the 
beautiful  is  the  supreme  purpose  of  the  exercises.  Underlying  the  production  of 
the  beautiful  is  the  great  principle  of  fine  space  relation. 


Book  7,  p.  14. 


Book  7,  p.  15. 


Book  8,  p.  II. 


J^ 


Book  8.  p.  13. 


This  principle  is  something  which  the  pupils  can  gradually  be  led  to  feel  through 
the  study  of  good  examples  and  through  various  exercises  calling  for  selection  of 
form  and  aspect,  for  grouping,  for  placing  upon  the  page,  and  for  rendering.  These 
are  all  features  of  composition,  of  beauty  expressed  in  terms  of  art.  To  this  end 
the  choice  selections  are  given  from  the  works  of  masters  on  the  illustrative  pages  of 
the  drawing-books. 


BOOKS    7   AND   8.  — SIXTH    YEAR. 


REPRESENTATION. 
Appearance  of  Form. 
Picture=Drawings. 

DECORA  TION. 

Ornamentation  of  Form. 

Original  Design. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

Facts  of  Form. 

Working=Drawings. 


FINE  EXAMPLES. 


NATURE:  Berries;  Trees;  from  the  Pose,  from  Animals; 

Flowers;  Landscape. 
OBJECTS:     Books,    Chairs,    Vases,    Pitchers,    and    other 

familiar  objects ;   Towers. 
TYPE  SOLIDS:   Cube,  Square,  Prism, 

HISTORIC  ORNAMENT :   Egyptian  and  Greek. 
COLOR:   Colored  Paper,  Brush,  Light  and  dark. 

SOLIDS:   Cube,  Square,   Prism,   Equi.   Tri.   Prism,   Cone, 

Pyramid. 
PATTERNS:   Cone,  Pyramid;  Objects  similar  in  form. 
WORKING-DRAWINGS:   Two  and  Three  Views,  figured. 

From  Rembrandt,  Millet,  Arthur  W.  Dow,  John  La  Farge, 

Edwin  Blashfleld,  and  Anna  Klumpke. 
From  Japanese  artists  —  Hokusai's    daughter  and  Hiro- 

shige. 
From  Egyptian  and  Greek  architecture. 


COMPOSITION. 

REPRESENTATION:  Groups  of  Models  or  Objects;   Landscape. 
DECORATION :  Space  Relations ;  Light  and  Dark,  Color ;  Flower  Composition. 
CONSTRUCTION:   Mouldings;   Doorways;  Brackets. 


78 


BOOK   7. 

SIXTH  YEAR.  — FIRST  HALF. 


The  Prang  Elementary  Course  in  Art  Instruction  is  pub- 
lished in  two  separate  editions,  prepared  to  meet  the  varying 
conditions  of  the  use  of  one  or  two  books  a  year.  In  the 
edition  providing  for  the  use  of  two  books  a  year,  the  books 
are  designated  as  " No.  i,""No.  2," -No,  3,"  "No.  4," -'No.  5," 
"  No.  6,"  etc. ;  in  the  edition  providing  for  the  use  of  one 
book  a  year,  the  books  are  named  "Third  Year,'"  "Fourth 
Year,"  "  Fifth  Year,"  etc.  This  Manual  text  has  been  espe- 
cially prepared  to  meet  the  needs  of  both  editions. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES.  81 


BOOK  7,  PAGE  I.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  i. 

ILLUSTRATIVE    PAGES. 

Figures.  — Millet. 

« 

Illustrations. — The  drawings  on  page  i  are  by  Millet;  simple  in  treatment, 
calm,  strong,  and  true,  telling  of  the  nobiUty  of  labor  as  seen  in  French  peasant  life. 

Jean  Francois  Millet  (1814-1875),  who  was  born  at  Gruchy,  France,  was 
one  of  the  great  modern  painters.  He  was  born  a  peasant ;  his  father  and  mother 
were  peasants,  and  together  they  toiled  in  the  fields.  His  father,  however,  found  time 
to  see  the  beauties  of  nature  and  to  point  them  out  to  the  boy,  saying  to  him  of  a  tree, 
"  See  how  fine  !  Look  at  that  tree,  —  how  large  and  beautiful  !  It  is  as  beautiful  as 
a  flower"  ;  or  looking  out  of  the  window,  "See  !  "  he  would  say,  "that  house  half 
buried  by  the  field  is  good,  —  it  seems  to  me  that  it  ought  to  be  drawn  that  way." 
He  also  modeled  in  clay  and  carved  in  wood  for  his  son.  His  sister  Emilie 
remembered,  that  once  when  Francois  was  a  child  of  four  or  five,  his  father  asked  the 
little  ones  what  professions  they  would  choose  when  they  grew  up,  and  the  boy 
replied,  "  I  mean  to  make  pictures  of  men."  One  of  the  professors  of  the  high 
school  at  Versailles,  who  chanced  during  his  vacation  to  meet  and  talk  with  young 
Millet,  said,  "  I  have  met  a  child  whose  soul  is  as  charming  as  poesy  itself."  And 
soon  that  child  began  to  express  himself,  not  only  by  words,  but  also  by  drawing. 
When  he  was  eighteen  years  old  he  drew  with  a  bit  of  charcoal,  upon  a  white  wall, 
the  picture  of  a  tree,  or  an  orchard,  or  a  peasant  plodding  home  from  work.  They 
talked  these  drawings  over  at  home,  and  decided  that  Jean  should  study  to  be  an 
artist. 

His  teachers  in  Cherbourg  could  not  help  him  much  ;  and  in  1837,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-three,  he  went  to  Paris  to  the  studio  of  the  famous  artist  Delaroche.  He 
was  a  fair,  broad-chested  peasant,  with  long  light  hair  falling  wildly  about  his 
shoulders.  His  fellow-students  called  him  "  the  man  of  the  woods."  Diaz,  Rous- 
seau, and  Corot,  who  afterward  became  such  great  artists,  were  among  the  pupils 
of  Delaroche  at  this  time  with  Millet.  They  are  all  now  known  as  artists  of  the 
Barbison  school. 

Millet  soon  left  the  studio  of  Delaroche,  and  supported  himself  by  sign-painting, 
by  painting  portraits,  and  by  making  copies  of  the  great  pictures  in  the  galleries.  At 
the  same  time  he  read  all  that  he  could,  for,  though  a  peasant,  he  had  been  well 


82  teacher's  manual. 

educated.  He  read  Virgil  and  Homer  and  Shakespeare,  Walter  Scott  and  Byron, 
Milton  and  Burns,  Goethe  and  Schiller,  Emerson  and  Channing.  He  also  studied 
the  old  masters.     He  says  :  — 

"  For  a  month  the  masters  were  my  only  occupation  during  the  day.  The  early  ones 
drew  me  by  their  admirable  expression  of  gentleness,  holiness,  and  fervor;  the  great 
Italians  by  their  knowledge  and  charm  of  composition.  Fra  Angelico  filled  me  with 
visions ;  and  when  I  returned  at  night  to  my  miserable  lodging  I  did  not  want  to  think  of 
anything  but  those  gentle  masters  who  made  beings  so  fervent  that  they  are  beautiful,  and 
so  beautiful  that  they  are  good." 

•  Yet  he  kept  in  his  heart  the  peasant  life  that  he  knew  so  well,  and  which  was  so 
full  of  humanity;  and  in  1849  he  painted  his  great  picture  "The  Sower."  He 
constantly  heard  what  he  called  "  the  cry  of  the  earth,"  and  he  portrayed  it  in  his 
pictures  of  peasant  life.  He  had  a  hard  time  to  live,  for  he  and  his  family  at  many 
times  had  not  enough  to  eat.  In  1849  he  left  Paris  and  went  to  Barbison,  taking  a 
house  of  three  rooms.  He  lived  there  with  his  family,  and  painted,  happy  in  his 
privations,  for  he  was  again  in  the  midst  of  his  inspiration,  the  peasant  life  of  toil,  — 
"  the  true  humanity,  the  great  poetry."  There  he  worked,  gaining  fame  and 
moderate  means,  and  there  he  died  in  1875. 

He  drew  the  digger,  the  sower,  the  haymaker,  the  thresher,  the  gleaner,  the 
shepherdess,  the  goose  girl,  —  all  phases  of  peasant  life  and  labor  attracted  him. 
Lead  the  pupils  to  see  how  essential  the  service  of  tilUng  the  soil  is  ;  how  all  depend 
on  it,  and  how,  therefore,  it  may  be  symbolic  of  all  service,  —  noble  and  dignified. 
The  chief  ruler  of  this  country  serves  the  people.  The  motto  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  who  will  rule  over  the  greatest  empire  of  the  world,  is  "  I  serve." 

Millet  excelled  in  draughtsmanship,  in  mastery  of  form,  and  in  the  expression 
of  tender  and  profound  feeling.  He  sketched  with  great  rapidity.  On  returning 
from  a  walk  he  would  frequently  cover  many  sheets  of  paper  with  sketches  of  what 
he  had  seen.  An  illustration  is  given  of  such  a  sheet,  —  a  girl  raking  a  heap  of 
smoking  weeds  together,  a  profile  of  a  girl,  a  hoe,  a  young  shepherdess  with  a  staff 
resting  her  cheek  on  her  hands,  a  man  leaning  on  a  pitchfork,  a  boat  at  full  sail, 
ducks  on  land  and  in  water,  cottages  in  a  forest,  and  finally  this  motto  so  expres- 
sive of  him  :  "//  /au^  pouvoir  /aire  servir  le  trivial  a  V expression  du  sublime 
c'est  la  la  vraie  forced  "  Make  the  trivial  serve  in  the  expression  of  the  sublime. 
That  is  true  strength."  He  made  such  sketches  rapidly  to  obtain  motives  for  his 
pictures ;  but  when  he  had  determined  on  the  motive,  he  drew  with  very  great  care, 
working  very  slowly. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES. 


83 


Sketches.  —  MILLET. 


84  teacher's  manual. 

His  great  endeavor  was  to  portray  character  through  types  rather  than  indi- 
viduals. The  peasant  was  to  him  a  hving  being  who,  through  his  toil,  symbolized 
humanity.  Among  his  best  pictures  are  "The  Gleaners,"  "The  Sower,"  "The 
Sheep  Fold,"  and  "The  Angelus."  It  will  be  interesting  to  pupils  to  make  col- 
lections of  his  pictures.  He  was  known,  however,  as  well  by  his  drawings  as  by  his 
paintings ;  and  some  of  his  best  drawings  have  been  reproduced  for  these  drawing- 
books,  that  they  may  stand  as  an  inspiration  to  the  pupils. 

His  art  principle  was  that  the  picture  must  be  a  whole  and  must  give  one  single 
impression.  He  sought  then  for  a  fundamental  note  for  his  picture  —  determined  on 
the  central  thought  and  then  made  everything  contribute  to  that  thought.  He 
selected  and  rejected  details,  and  he  carefully  composed  his  pictures.  There  was 
no  hap-hazard  work ;  it  was  all  carefully  thought  out.  The  figure  was  the  main 
thing ;  nature  was  the  frame,  for  the  life  of  the  peasant  is  in  nature,  but  that  nature 
was  chosen  that  would  be  in  harmony  with  the  thought  of  the  picture.  The  point 
to  which  he  never  ceased  to  return  is  character,  and  this  was  expressed  by  careful 
selection  of  costume,  attitude,  gesture,  features,  and  of  the  landscape  accessories, 
eliminating  everything  that  would  detract  from  the  character  sought.  Moreover,  he 
always  worked  for  a  type  —  the  ideal  —  believing  it  to  be  more  true  than  the  real 
just  as  Aristotle  said  poetry  was  more  true  than  history. 

The  Sower.  —  And  now  we  come  to  one  of  his  great  pictures.  The  illustra- 
tion in  the  drawing-book  was  taken  from  a  reproduction  of  a  drawing.'  See  how 
simple  the  picture  is  !  A  single  figure,  sturdy,  well-planted,  in  peasant  costume, 
grain  bag  at  his  side,  scattering  the  seed  with  powerful  fling,  grandly  treading  the 
newly  ploughed  field  that  stretches  its  span  so  far,  while  away  in  the  distance  some 
buildings  faintly  rise  —  and  a  man  and  horses  are  ploughing.  See  how  everything 
is  concentrated  —  the  details  in  the  distance  are  just  enough  to  suggest  the  expanse 
of  ground  —  the  largeness  of  the  task.  The  moving  clouds  seem  in  a  way  to  accent 
the  motion  of  the  strong  arm.  The  man  and  the  work  are  the  great  things,  so  the 
field  is  broader  than  the  sky.  The  work  is  only  begun,  so  the  space  ahead  of  the 
man  is  more  than  that  behind  him.  The  light  is  so  thrown  that  the  man  is  illumi- 
nated—  his  work  is  ennobled. 

And  how  all  the  technical  rules  of  composition  have  been  obeyed  —  the  vertical 
figure  and  the  horizontal  edge  of  the  field  balance  and  are  mediated  by  the  oblique 

1  There  are  two  great  paintings  of  The  Sower  —  one  is  owned  abroad  —  the  other  is  owned  by  Mr. 
Quincy  Shaw,  Boston. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES.  85 

arm  of  the  sower,  which  again  is  rhythmically  reproduced  in  the  clouds.  All  is  in 
harmonious  composition  and  all  supports  and  strengthens  the  main  thought  —  noble 
labor. 

I  saw  a  Sower  walking  slow 

Across  the  earth,  from  east  to  west. 

—  James  Russell  Lowell. 

The  Angelus. — And  how  shall  we  study  this  great  picture?  Again,  how 
simple  !  The  sun  has  set,  a  broad  peaceful  twilight  sky  sending  its  last  rays  across  the 
field,  where  two  peasants  are  about  finishing  their  day's  work ;  the  wheelbarrow  is 
filled  with  bags,  the  basket  is  at  her  feet,  and  the  fork  is  beside  him  ;  they  stand  with 
bowed  heads  full  of  devotion  —  far  from  the  distant  church  spire  just  visible  on  the 
horizon,  from  which  sounds  The  Angelus,  the  bell  for  evening  prayers.  When  Millet 
first  showed  the  picture,  M.  Sensier  cried,  "  It  is  the  Angelus  !  "  "  It  is  indeed," 
Millet  answered,  "  you  hear  the  bells." 

And  this  picture  too  is  for  the  uplift  of  labor.  See  how  details  are  left  out, 
how  only  those  things  are  given  that  tell  the  thought,  the  humanity  that  makes  these 
peasants  akin  with  all. 

The  composition  has  only  simple  elements  —  the  long  horizon,  the  vertical 
figures,  relieved  by  the  incline  of  the  fork,  while  in  mass  and  in  direction  the 
basket  and  the  wheelbarrow  complement  each  other  and  rhythm  shows  in  the  handles 
of  the  wheelbarrow. 

But  moreover,  through  this  composition  the  thought  is  emphasized  —  it  is 
labor,  whose  implements  are  there,  and  which  being  placed  just  so  tell  best  their 
story.  How  grand  and  strong  the  lines  of  the  figures  are,  how  beautiful  the  bowed 
heads  !     A  firm  will  directed  the  work,  leaving  nothing  to  chance. 

"Against  the  sunset  glow  they  stand, 
Two  humblest  toilers  of  the  land, 
Rugged  of  speech  and  rougli  of  hand, 

Bowed  down  by  tillage  ; 
No  grace  of  garb  or  circumstance 
Invests  them  with  a  high  romance. 
Ten  thousand  such  through  fruitful  France, 
In  field  and  village. 

"  The  day's  slow  path  from  dawn  to  west  ,  >  'p-K» 

Has  left  them  soil-bestained,  distrest,  ^'i  ^^^v 

No  thought  beyond  the  nightly  rest, —  ,.  (^  ' , 

New  toil  tomorrow  ;  ■  ',  t*^ 


k    ! 

c 

i 

1  , 

r-" 

t. 

> 

'-■ 

■']^ 

c. 

./; 

86  teacher's  manual. 

Till  solemnly  the  "  Ave  "  bell 
Rings  out  the  sun's  departing  knell, 
Borne  by  the  breeze's  rhythmic  swell 
O'er  swathe  and  furrow. 

"  O  lowly  pair  !  you  dream  it  not 
Yet  on  your  hard  unlovely  lot 
That  evening  gleam  of  light  has  shot 

A  glorious  passage ; 
For  prophets  oft  have  yearned  and  kings 
Have  yearned  in  vain  to  know  the  things 
Which  to  your  simple  spirits  brings 
That  curfew  message. 
***** 
''■  enough  for  us 
The  two  lone  figures  bending  thus, 
For  whom  that  far-off  Angelus 
Speaks  Hope  and  Heaven." 

—  Lord  Houghton. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES.  87 


BOOK  7,  PAGE  2.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  2. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES. 

Sketches  and  Studies.  —  John  La  Farge. 

Illustrations.  —  The  sketches  and  studies  reproduced  from  pencil  drawings 
by  John  La  Farge,  on  the  drawing-book  page,  show  the  method  of  an  artist  in 
working  for  a  picture  —  first  a  sketch  giving  the  conception  of  the  whole,  then 
careful  study  for  the  various  parts  to  be  used  to  make  the  whole. 

John  La  Farge,  the  elder,  father  of  the  great  American  artist,  was  a  French 
officer,  who  after  various  adventures  by  sea  and  land,  reached  America  in  1806. 
He  became  quite  wealthy  and  settled  in  New  York  City,  where  John  La  Farge, 
his  son,  the  artist,  spent  his  early  days,  and  where  he  received  a  legal  and  classical 
education.  He  was  taught  to  draw  in  a  rather  minute,  precise  way  by  his  grand- 
father, who  was  a  miniature  painter.  When  he  went  abroad  he  found  himself  with 
an  inclination  to  know  something  of  painting  as  an  accomphshment.  With  this 
thought,  he  entered  the  studio  of  the  great  French  artist,  Couture.  Of  his  work 
there,  Mr.  La  Farge  says  :  — 

"  My  stay  at  the  atelier  was  not  a  long  one.  It  was  mainly  taken  up  with  drawing 
from  the  model.  My  master  not  only  approved  of  my  work,  but  warned  me  of  the  danger 
of  imitating. his  manner  through  the  methods  of  his  students.  .  .  .  The  master's  advice 
was  to  study  and  copy  the  drawings  of  the  old  masters  in  the  Louvre  and  to  postpone  the 
practice  of  painting.  ...  I  made  drawings  from  Correggio,  Leonardo,  and  others.  My 
greatest  fascination,  however,  was  Rembrandt  in  his  etchings." 

Returning  to  New  York,  he  grew  more  and  more  interested  in  painting,  and 
found  a  master  in  William  Morris  Hunt.  At  this  time,  Hunt  was  growing  in 
appreciation  and  enthusiasm  for  Millet.  La  Farge  and  his  master  worked 
together,  not  always  agreeing  in  method  or  theory,  but  always  friends.  The  sketch- 
books of  this  time  are  many ;  they  contain  first  thoughts  and  also  carefully  worked 
out  studies  —  mere  records,  sometimes  of  pose  and  gesture,  or  most  minutely  drawn 
studies  from  nature,  showing  a  pre-Raphaelite  tendency. 

He  drew  and  painted  assiduously ;  he  made  many  drawings  on  wood  for 
magazines  and  books,  for  wood  engraving  was  the  chief  means  of  book  illustration 
at  that  time.      About  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  he  began  to  make  his  qualities 


88  teacher's  manual. 

as  an  artist  felt.  At  this  time,  he  painted  his  fine  figure  of  St.  Paul,  described  by 
G.  P.  Lathrop  in  Scribnefs  Mo7ithly,  1881. 

Among  Mr.  La  Farge's  greatest  works  are  the  decoration  of  Trinity  Church, 
Boston,  and  the  painting  of  "The  Ascension"  in  the  Church  of  the  Ascension, 
New  York.  Both  these  churches  are  easily  accessible  to  visitors,  being  open 
nearly  every  day. 

Mr.  La  Farge  is  well  known,  also,  through  his  remarkable  and  individual 
work  in  stained  glass.  He  uses  in  this  work  many  methods  that  are  peculiarly  his 
own,  to  bring  out  the  richness  and  opalescence  of  color  that  he  so  strongly  feels. 

In  all  his  work  his  subjects  are  noble  and  uplifting.  To  the  nobility  of  subject 
he  joins  nobility  of  composition.  Of  art,  he  says,  in  "  An  Artist's  Letters  from 
Japan  "  :  — 

"  I  have  far  within  me  a  belief  that  art  is  the  love  of  certain  balanced  proportions  and 
relations  which  the  mind  likes  to  discover  and  to  bring  out  in  what  it  deals  with,  be  it 
thought  or  the  actions  of  men,  or  the  influences  of  nature,  or  the  material  things  in  which 
necessity  makes  it  to  work.  I  should  then  expand  this  idea  until  it  stretched  from  the 
patterns  of  earliest  pottery  to  the  harmony  of  the  lines  of  Homer.  Then  I  should  say 
that  in  our  plastic  arts  the  relations  of  lines  and  spaces  are,  in  my  belief,  the  first  and 
earliest  desires.  And  again  I  should  have  to  say  that,  in  my  unexpressed  faith,  these 
needs  are  as  needs  of  the  soul,  and  echoes  of  the  laws  of  the  universe,  seen  and  unseen, 
reflections  of  the  universal  mathematics,  cadences  of  the  ancient  music  of  the  spheres.'' 

Special  Examples. — The  upper  illustration  at  the  right  on  the  drawing- 
book  page  shows  sketches  for  the  following  verse  from  Longfellow's  "  Skeleton  in 

Armor  "  :  — 

"  Far  in  the  Northern  Land, 
By  the  wild  Baltic's  strand, 
I,  with  my  childish  hand, 
Tamed  the  gerfalcon." 

The  illustration  at  the  left  shows  careful  studies  for  the  same  subject.  His 
sketches  and  studies  are  very  frequently  accompanied  by  notes  on  the  margin. 
In  this  case,  the  feathers  at  the  top  are  noted  as  being  one-third  the  length  of 
the  bird. 

The  studies  of  the  bird's  head  will  be  suggestive  as  to  what  pupils  can  do. 
They  are  learning  now  to  make  very  quick  sketches  and  produce  very  creditable 
sheets  of  drawings  made  from  a  pet  bird  brought  to  school. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES.  89 

The  lower   illustration   at  the  right  is  a  sketch  for  the  following  verse  from 
Tennyson's  "  Enoch  Arden  "  :  — 

"  Here  on  this  beach  a  hundred  years  ago 
Three  children  of  three  houses,  Annie  Lee, 
The  prettiest  little  damsel  in  the  port, 
And  Philip  Ray,  the  miller's  only  son. 
And  Enoch  Arden.  a  rough  sailor's  lad 
Made  orphan  by  a  winter  shipwreck,  play'd 
Among:  the  waste  and  lumber  of  the  shore." 


'& 


Pupils  will  be  interested  to  tell  what  the  artist  had  to  say  in  these  two  sketches. 
The  sketch  for  the  verse  from  The  Skeleton  in  Armor  expresses  so  much.  The  grace- 
ful lines  of  the  boy's  figure  show  youthful  alertness ;  the  wind,  too,  is  blowing  there 
on  "the  wild  Baltic's  strand"  ;  the  upstretched  "childish"  arm  and  "hand"  are  in 
beautiful  balance  to  the  "gerfalcon"  perched  on  the  other  arm.  Evidently  Mr.  La 
Farge  had  in  his  mind  that  he  could  bring  out  his  subject  best  through  "  certain 
balanced  proportions  and  relations  "  of  which  he  spoke  in  "  An  Artist's  Letters  from 
Japan." 

In  the  sketch  for  Enoch  Arden,  what  had  he  to  say?  We  should  all  know 
"  Annie  Lee,  the  prettiest  damsel  in  the  port,"  but  which  is  "  Philip  Ray,  the  miller's 
only  son,"  and  which  is  "  Enoch  Arden,  a  rough  sailor  lad  "  ?  Mr.  La  Farge  doubt- 
less had  in  his  mind  the  whole  story  (which  was  really  that  of  Enoch  Arden)  even  in 
the  sketch  of  the  children  and  made  everything  tend  toward  emphasizing  Enoch 
Arden.  So  here  the  rough  sailor  lad  is  undeniably  shown  in  the  sturdier  boy  in 
heavy,  awkward  clothes,  while  in  the  distance  are  the  wharf  and  the  ships,  to  repeat 
the  thought  of  the  sailor  boy. 

"  Beyond,  red  roofs  about  a  narrow  wharf 
In  cluster ;  then  a  mouldered  church  ;  and  higher 
A  long  street  climbs  to  one  tall-tower'd  mill." 


THE   SUBJECT   OF   REPRESENTATION. 

In  the  earlier  books  of  this  series,  emphasis  was  put  upon  the 
interesting  aspects  of  the  things  studied  rather  than  on  the  pupils' 
methods  of  representing  them.  It  is  assumed  now,  in  the  higher 
books  of  the  series,  that  pupils  who  have  advanced  to  this  grade  will 
have  acquired  habits  of  sympathetic  observation,  both  of  objects  and 
of  pictures. 

The  instruction,  from  this  point  onward,  puts  steadily  increasing 
emphasis  on  the  development  of  individual  power  through  wise  selec- 
tion of  motives,  through  the  expression  of  beauty  of  forms  and  values 
in  composition  and  through  the  mastery  of  skill  in  the  artistic  ren- 
dering of  effects  of  perspective,  texture,  light  and  shade,  color  and 
atmosphere. 


BEPRESENTA  TION. 


91 


BOOK  7,  PAGE  3. 


SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  3. 


REPRESENTATION. 


Nature.  —  Branches.     Berries. 

Art.  —  Selection.     Composition.     Choice  of  Aspect.     Rendering. 

[The  pupil  selects  and  arranges  branches  of  berries  and  sketches 
them  ;  chooses  one  that  presents  a  beautiful  aspect  and  fine 
balance,  and  draws  it  in  the  book,  seeking  for  beauty  in  the 
rendering.] 

Preparation  for  the  Lesson. — When  sprays  or  flowers  are  used  for  study,  cut 
them  the  night  before  the  lesson,  plunge  the  stems  in  water,  and  keep  in  a  cool 
place  until  needed.  Plants  usually  wilt  after  cutting,  but  if  so  treated  will  revive 
later,  and  remain  about  the  same  for  some  time. 

Plant  life  is  not  at  its  best  when  wilted  ;  the  pupils  feel  this,  and  their  interest 
once  roused  they  will  delight  in  sharing  the  responsibility  of  providing  and  caring  for 
such  material.    Incidentally  it  will  help  in  nature  study. 

The  alder  berry,  snow  berry,  bitter  sweet,  and  woodbine  are  good  as  selec- 
tions. The  fruitage,  or  seed  vessels  of  the  burdock,  bagweed,  shepherd's  purse, 
stramonium,  milkweed  and  rose  hips  are  all  very  beautiful  and  are  not  only  inter- 
esting subjects  for  a  drawing  lesson,  but  are  excellent  as  motives  for  decorative 
design  and  for  treatment  in  ink  and  water  color. 

"  Weeds  "  as  we  call  them  are  often  rare  plants  in  some  other  country.  We 
pass  them  by  because  they  are  so  common,  growing  everywhere  by  the  wayside,  in 
the  field  or  meadow.  In  England,  the  many  petaled  daisy,  the  pink  primrose  and 
the  forget-me-not,  all  so  rare  with  us  and  not  often  found  outside  of  gardens  or 
greenhouses,  cover  the  ground  in  the  springtime,  in  every  direction. 


"  Once  in  a  golden  hour 
I  cast  to  earth  a  seed. 
Up  there  came  a  flower, 
The  people  said,  a  weed. 

"Then  it  grew  so  tall 
It  wore  a  crown  of  light. 
But  thieves  from  o'er  the  wall 
Stole  the  seed  by  night, 


"  Sow'd  it  far  and  wide 
By  every  town  and  tower, 
Till  all  the  people  cried, 
"  Splendid  is  the  flower." 

"And  some  are  pretty  enough 
And  some  are  poor  indeed  ; 
And  now  again  the  people 
Call  it  but  a  weed." 

—  Alfred  Tennyson. 


Let  the  specimens  selected  be  healthy  and  normal  in  growth  as  a  rule,  for  while 
it  is  true  that  worm-eaten  or  ragged  leaves  sometimes  add  a  certain  picturesqueness 


92  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

to  the  effect,  just  as  an  old  and  dying  tree  is  often  beautiful  in  its  decay — our 
general  purpose  is  to  select  typical  examples  for  study  which  are  seen  at  their  best 
when  full  of  vigorous  life.  When  practicable,  it  is  well  for  the  pupils  to  bring  in 
the  vines  or  sprays  themselves  or  certainly  to  help  the  teacher  in  supplying  the 
class.  As  a  matter  of  ethics  it  is  not  well  to  wait  upon  pupils  too  much ;  besides 
they  take  more  interest  in  a  lesson  when  they  contribute  to  its  success  by  a  distinct 
effort  of  their  own. 

A  sufficient  number  of  sprays  should  be  distributed,  that  each  pupil  may  have 
a  clear,  but  not  too  close  view.  Anywhere  from  four  to  six  feet  is  a  good  distance 
from  the  eye,  according  to  the  size  and  character  of  the  sprays.  Large  plants  like 
the  palm  or  rubber  plant  should  be  viewed  across  the  room. 

If  the  stem  is  woody  and  the  leaves  thick  (so  as  not  to  wilt  easily),  then  the 
spray  may  be  pinned  against  a  sheet  of  gray,  manila,  or  white  paper,  the  whole 
resting  against  a  pile  of  books.  Two  sheets  of  cardboard  can  be  connected  and 
placed  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  sort  of  easel,  the  spray  can  be  arranged  and 
pinned  upon  it  in  a  desirable  position,  thus  exercising  the  taste  of  the  individual 
pupil.  Such  an  arrangement  can  be  set  behind  sprays  of  flowers  which  are  in  a  vase 
or  bottle,  thus  serving  as  an  effective  background,  and  helping,  perhaps,  to  cut  off 
the  light  on  the  shade  side  on  the  principle  of  a  shadow  box.  These  sheets  of  card- 
board can  be  adjusted  at  any  angle,  and  are  easily  collected,  folded,  and  placed 
away  for  future  use.  Once  provided,  they  are  less  trouble  than  a  sheet  of  paper 
against  a  pile  of  books. 

If  the  sprays  are  of  a  species  that  wilt  easily  it  may  seem  necessary  to  keep  the 
ends  of  the  stems  in  water.  Bottles  are  better  for  holding  the  stems  than  tumblers, 
if  only  the  spray  is  drawn.  The  spray  may  be  kept  in  place  better  by  the  addition 
of  sand. 

If  Drawing-book  7  should  be  used  in  the  early  spring  instead  of  fall,  budding 
twigs,  pussy-willows  or  leafless  branches  of  various  kinds  may  be  substituted  for 
berries  or  seed-vessels.  An  example  of  a  pleasing  treatment  of  pussy-willows  can 
be  found  on  page  1 2  of  Drawing-book  4.  Leafless  twigs  at  any  season  of  the  year  are 
beautiful  when  they  show  the  characteristics  of  their  growth. 

The  space  on  the  drawing-book  page  may  be  divided  into  one  vertical  oblong 
and  two  horizontal  oblongs  beside  it,  or  two  horizontal  oblongs,  or  two  vertical 
oblongs,  and  within  these  spaces  budding  or  leafless  twigs  may  be  arranged  with  the 
thought  of  the  best  possible  composition  in  each.  The  character,  force,  and  strength 
of  the  twig  should  be  very  carefully  studied,  and  each  pupil  should  make  his  own 
arrangements  in  the  same  way  he  would  seek  to  solve  a  problem.  A  sheet  of  prac- 
tice paper  should  be  furnished  to  each  pupil  that  he  may  by  a  series  of  rough 


REP  BE  SEN  TA  TION.  93 

sketches  finally  decide  upon  the  arrangements  to  be  placed  in  the  drawing-book. 
The  examples  on  page  15  of  the  drawing-book,  showing  flower  composition, 
suggest  how  sprays  of  berries  might  be  "  composed  "  in  an  oblong.  It  is  of  great 
value  sometimes  to  come  as  near  as  possible  to  combinations  of  abstract  lines,  to 
realize  their  possibilities  and  their  limitations.  In  our  delight  in  pictorial  treatment 
we  are  in  considerable  danger  of  overlooking  the  great  value  of  drawing  in  line. 

Suggestions  of  Methods. — Whatever  example  of  plant  form  is  chosen,  it 
is  better  to  have  the  same  kind  for  the  whole  room,  if  possible.  Lead  the  pupils  to 
observe  its  habit  of  growth,  first  as  a  whole  ;  then  the  growth  of  the  leaves,  alternate 
or  otherwise.  Does  the  leaf  connect  closely  with  the  main  stem,  or  has  it  a  tiny 
stem  of  its  own?  Notice  the  form  and  the  color  of  the  berries.  Do  they  grow 
singly  or  in  clusters ;  do  they  appear  darker  or  lighter  than  the  leaves? 

Call  attention  to  such  salient  points,  but  do  not  say  much.  Leave  the  pupils  to 
discover  and  feel  as  much  as  possible  for  themselves.  Let  them  consider  carefully 
the  placing  upon  the  drawing-book  page,  with  a  view  to  good  space  relations,  and 
make  a  few  leading  lines  upon  practice  paper  before  starting  the  drawing  in  the 
book.  This  is  only  to  concentrate  thought,  and  such  sketching  upon  the  practice 
paper  should  not  proceed  far.  It  is  important  not  to  exhaust  the  interest  in  the 
subject  by  an  over-amount  of  preparation  for  the  drawing  in  the  book.  While  the 
work  in  the  drawing-book  should  be  the  result  of  the  pupil's  best  effort,  it  should  be 
considered  as  a  means  and  not  an  end.  Even  when  falling  far  short  of  excellence 
it  may  show  vigorous  effect  and  intelligent  observation,  which  will  be  a  help  to 
greater  general  culture  as  well  as  technical  attainment  in  the  future.  The  highest 
types  in  the  wviy  of  art  examples  are  contained  in  these  books  as  an  inspiration  to 
teacher  and  pupils,  but  in  no  case  should  results  be  expected  beyond  the  normal 
power  of  production. 

An  effect  of  color  is  shown  in  the  examples  on  page  3  of  the  drawing-book,  by 
the  dark  and  light  tones  used.  These  can  be  admirably  carried  out  with  the 
lead  pencil.  These  several  tones  are  sometimes  called  "  tone  values  "  and  even 
"  color  values."  A  soft  pencil  will  produce  a  dark  sufficiently  strong  to  indicate 
the  dark  berries  while  the  leaves  may  be  rendered  lighter,  with  perhaps  the  stem 
lighter  or  darker  than  the  leaves,  according  to  their  real  color  relation. 

A  stem  may  be  brown  and  the  leaves  dark  green  and  both  of  about  the  same 
color  value,  but  the  stem  may  appear  lighter  than  the  leaves,  here  and  there,  if  it 
has  a  smooth  surface  and  catches  glints  of  light.  In  fact,  by  color  in  pencil  draw- 
ing, or  any  medium  for  rendering  in  "black  and  white  "  is  meant  this  variation  or 
difference  in  tones  of  light  and  dark  which,  when  well  handled,  will  suggest  the 
difference  in  color  which  exists  in  the  object  drawn. 


94  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

As  the  same  spray  will  appear  different  in  color  in  different  positions,  and  as 
all  persons  do  not  see  color  alike,  the  pupil's  work  may  vary  considerably  even  from 
the  same  examples.  There  should,  though,  be  a  general  effort  to  keep  breadth  of 
treatment  with  not  many  tones. 

If  the  leaves  are  very  narrow  and  of  a  deep  color,  pencil  painting  (see  Manual, 
pages  59  and  60)  may  be  used.  In  any  case  the  pencil  should  not  be  sharp.  Pencil 
painting  should  be  limited  to  sprays  with  small  leaves  as  it  is  not  a  suitable  method 
for  the  expression  of  the  different  planes  of  a  large  leaf.  Pencil  painting  is  best 
suited  to  piquant  effects,  which  show  sparkling  color,  as  the  high  light  of  a  berry  or 
a  smooth  and  glittering  stem.  It  is  also  admirably  adapted  to  the  treatment  of 
some  delicate  grasses. 

If  water  colors  are  supplied  in  the  school,  this  page  will  furnish  a  good  chance 
for  their  use.  Sometimes  it  is  interesting  to  transpose  examples  like  those  upon 
page  3  of  the  drawing-book  into  ink  or  water  color.  The  two  sprays  show  plainly  that 
one  has  white  berries  and  the  other  dark  blue  or  nearly  black.  In  ink  or  water 
color  the  treatment  should  be  kept  simple  and  direct,  the  effect  obtained  if  possible 
in  one  wash.  Where  berries  are  highly  polished,  showing  a  glint  of  high  light,  the 
paper  may  be  left  for  that  light.  Reflected  light  is  usually  warm,  so  that  when 
painting  in  water  color  a  dark  blue  berry  will  often  show  a  touch  or  tendency  to 
red  on  the  side  away  from  the  light.  By  keeping  the  brush  full  of  water  and  color, 
and  touching  first  on  one  paint  and  then  on  another,  as  the  color  seems  to  need 
change  or  modification,  a  very  good  expression  of  the  whole  can  be  obtained  at 
once.  Remember  that  water  colors  dry  lighter  than  they  appear  when  applied. 
If  greater  depth  of  color  is  desired  in  some  places  after  the  first  touches  are  made, 
wait  until  the  first  wash  is  dry  before  applying  more  paint.  Only  very  skilful  workers 
can  apply  more  color  while  the  paper  is  wet  without  producing  a  muddy  effect. 
Experience  will  show  just  the  right  way  to  apply  ink  or  water  color  to  produce  a 
brilliant  and  sparkling  result  with  ink,  or  clear  and  transparent  in  water  color  with 
the  full  beauty  of  the  pigments  brought  out  by  their  proper  use. 

In  early  work  in  water  color,  flat  washes  are  often  desirable,  especially  in  dec- 
orative compositions  where  the  expression  of  values  is  not  carried  far,  but  to  give 
the  various  modifications  of  form  as  well,  it  is  desirable  to  work  more  directly  from  the 
paints,  changing  and  blending  as  one  goes  along,  and  so  expressing  light,  shade,  and 
shadow  at  the  same  time.  Sometimes  it  is  an  advantage  to  allow  one  color  to  run  or 
pool  into  another,  thus  giving  more  atmosphere  to  a  landscape  or  breaking  the  hard 
contour  of  an  object  in  a  group  of  still  life. 


PLATE    V\ 


I 


Examples  of  Pencil  Painting. 


THE  STUDY  OF  COLOR.  95 


THE   STUDY  OF   COLOR. 

It  seems  well  in  the  fall  of  the  year  to  give  time  to  color  study,  for  nature  is 

then  dressed  in  her  gayest  hues.     The  scales  of  color  from  light  to  dark  are  then 

full  and  rich  while  the  scales  from  one  color  to  another,  as  from  red  to  yellow,  are 

unsurpassed. 

"  A  maze  of  leaves  in  a  rich  mosaic, 

Brown  and  yellow  and  flaming  red, 

A  fringe  of  gray  and  a  sweep  of  yellow 

Crimson  streaks  and  a  belt  of  brown, 

Mingled  in  with  the  sunshine  mellow 


And  sun-tinged  leaves  soft  floating  down." 


Ernest  McGaffey. 


If  any  one  were  asked  to  tell  the  three  most  distinctive  colors,  undoubtedly  the 
reply  would  be,  yellow,  red,  and  blue  ;  for  these  colors  do  not  at  all  partake 
of  each  other's  color-nature.  Therefore,  the  first  color  study  is  of  yellow,  red,  and 
blue,  to  be  sought  in  flowers,  leaves,  and  fruit,  in  plumage,  and  in  the  sky,  in  fabrics, 
in  decoration,  and  in  pottery.  Hannah  Parker  Kimball  has  made  a  yellow,  red,  and 
blue  study  in  her  little  poem  called  "  Sun,  Cardinal,  and  Corn  Flowers." 

*'  Whence  gets  earth  her  gold  for  thee, 
O  Sunflower  ? 
Her  woven,  yellow  locks  so  fine 
Must  go  to  make  that  gold  of  thine. 

*'  And  whence  thy  red  beside  the  stream, 
O  Cardinal-flower  ? 
She  pricks  some  vein  lies  near  the  heart 
That  thy  rich,  ruddy  hues  may  start. 

"  And  whence  thy  blue  amid  the  corn, 
.        O  Corn-flower  ? 
Her  deep-blue  eyes  gleam  out  in  glee, 
The  glories  of  her  work  to  see." 

The  three  colors  that  follow  yellow,  red,  and  blue  are  those  that  each  partake 
of  the  nature  of  two  of  the  first. 

"  Saff"ron  and  sapphire  and  red 
Waved  aloft  to  their  sisters  below." 

—  George  Meredith. 


96  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

Thus  orange  inclines  to  yellow  and  to  red ;  green  inclines  to  yellow  and  to 
blue,  and  violet  inclines  to  red  and  to  blue,  as  J.  G.  Holland  says : 

"  To  atmospheres  of  red  and  blue 
That  blent  in  violet  aureole." 

Seeking  the  relationship  of  these  six  colors,  they  arrange  themselves  as  Red, 
Orange,  Yellow,  Green,  Blue,  Violet : 

"  First  the  flaming  red 
Sprang  vivid  forth  ;  the  tawny  orange  next, 
And  next  delicious  yellow  ;  by  whose  side  ~ 
Fell  the  kind  beams  of  all-refreshing  green. 
Then  the  pure  blue  that  swells  autumnal  skies, 
Ethereal  play "d ;     .     .     . 
While  the  last  gleamings  of  refracted  light 
Died  in  the  fainting  violet  away." 

—  James  Thomson. 

After  these  come  colors  of  still  closer  relationship  which  bear  double  names 
showing  whence  they  spring :  red  orange,  yellow  orange,  yellow  green, 
blue  green,  blue  violet,  red  violet.  These  colors  are  called  intermediate 
colors  and  arrange  themselves  readily  with  the  six  leading  colors  mentioned  above 
so  that  there  will  be  a  color  unit  of  12  colors.  These  colors  are  frequently  men- 
tioned by  their  symbols  —  the  initial  letters  of  their  names,  thus  R,  RO,  O,  YO,  Y, 
YG,  G,  BG,  B,  BV,  V,  RV,  showing  a  continuous  flow  of  color.  If  the  colors 
of  this  unit  be  considered  as  arranged  in  a  circle  instead  of  a  straight  line,  the  flow 
will  be  continuous  around  the  circle ;  for  the  red  violet  at  the  end  of  the  line  is 
closely  related  to  the  red  at  the  beginning  of  the  line,  which  it  would  meet  were  the 
line  made  a  circle. 

Pupils  should  gain  their  ideas  of  the  standards  of  these  colors,  and  their  tints 
and  shades,  from  colored  paper.  At  this  stage  of  the  work  pupils  should  have 
become  quite  familiar  with  the  six  leading  colors,  the  six  intermediate  and  their 
tints  and  shades.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  various  degrees  of  a  color,  from 
light  to  dark,  are  called  tones,  the  tones  lighter  than  the  normal  (the  full,  pure  state 
of  a  color)  being  called  tints,  and  the  tones  darker  than  the  normal  being  called 
shades.  A  color  and  its  tints  and  shades  —  the  tints  placed  above  the  normal  and 
the  shades  below  —  form  a  scale.     It  is  very  interesting,  as  well  as  admirable  color 


THE  STUDY  OF  COLOR.  97 

training  for  pupils,  to  form  these  color  scales  first  in  colored  paper,  and  then  in  bits 
of  textiles,  or  to  select  a  beautiful  colored  object  —  as  a  feather,  a  spray  of  leaves, 
a  flower  —  and  discover  the  scales  of  color  in  the  object,  and  reproduce  those 
scales  in  colored  paper. 

Each  strong  individual  color  should,  however,  have  its  special  study.  Color 
days  or  color  weeks,  in  which  one  particular  color  rules,  or  days  in  which  yellow,  red 
and  blue,  or  orange,  green,  and  violet  prevail,  are  a  special  delight  to  pupils,  while  at 
the  same  time  their  color  perception  is  being  strengthened.  On  such  color  days  (it 
may  be  an  orange  day)  there  would  appear  on  the  cabinet  a  bit  of  orange  pottery, 
girls  would  wear  an  orange  bow  and  boys  an  orange  tie,  coreopsis  and  other  brilliant 
orange  flowers  —  nasturtiums  show  the  tints  and  shades  in  a  wonderful  way  —  would 
be  placed  on  the  teacher's  desk,  and  some  oranges  near  by  might  finish  the  scheme. 
The  pupils'  work  would  be  in  borders  of  orange,  in  scales  of  orange,  and  in 
harmonious  arrangements. 

In  the  fourth  year  broken  colors  were  introduced  in  the  regular  order  of  color 
study,  for  the  shades  of  the  six  leading  colors  were  given.  The  shades  of  color,  as 
well  as  the  different  grays,  are  broken  colors.  In  the  fifth  year  broken  colors  were 
studied  still  further  in  the  shades  of  the  intermediate  colors.  In  the  sixth  year  a 
special  study  of  grays  is  introduced.  These  grays  range  themselves  readily  under  the 
color  names  already  given.  They  are  red  gray,  orange  gray,  yellow  gray, 
green  gray,  blue  gray,  violet  gray.  These  take  various  names  in  literature, 
red  gray  being  frequently  spoken  of  as  russet. 

"When  her  fragrant  fruit  the  orchard  shed, 
They  helped  to  gather  the  apples  spread 
On  the  soft  grass,  —  yellow,  russet,  red." 

—  Phcebe  Cary. 

Orange  gray  is  very,  well  known  by  its  familiar  name  of  brown.  If  you  study 
the  color  in  the  "  great  ripe  nuts,  kissed  brown  by  the  July  sun,"  you  will  feel  the 
yellow  and  red  and  gray. 

"  Yellow  and  red  were  the  apples, 
And  the  ripe  pears  russet  brown ; 
And  the  peaches  had  stolen  blushes 

From  the  girls  who  shook  them  down." 

—  John  G.  Whittier. 


98  teacher's  manual. 

Yellow  gray  has  also  the  name  of  citrine.  Yellow  has  so  much  the  color  of 
light  and  of  the  glint  of  gold  that  it  is  often  expressed  by  gold. 

"  This  lovely  mountain-side, 

In  faintest  purple  dyed. 

And  golden  gray." 

—  Edmund  Gosse. 

Green  gray  is  the  same  as  olive.  The  color,  in  its  tints,  is  like  that  of  the 
leaves  of  the  olive  tree  and  of  the  poplar. 

"  Hard  by  a  poplar  shook  alway, 
All  silver  green  with  gnarled  bark." 

—  Alfred  Tennyson. 

Blue  gray  is  frequently  called  slate  color,  a  name  used  largely  in  connection 
with  fabrics. 

"Down  through  the  blue  gray  thyme,  which  roofs  their  courses  with  odor, 
Rivulets,  gentle  as  words  from  the  lips  of  beauty,  are  flowing." 

—  Lord  Houghton. 

And  finally,  violet  gray  may  be  expressed  by  heliotrope,  although  heliotrope  is 
perhaps  slightly  redder  than  violet  gray.  A  most  beautiful  transition  of  color 
through  the  day  is  given  in  the  poem  "  Day  and  Night." 

"  From  gray  of  dusk,  the  veils  unfold 
To  pearl  and  amethyst  and  gold  — 

Thus  is  the  new  day  woven  and  spun : 

From  glory  of  blue  to  rainbow-spray, 

From  sunset  gold  to  violet  gray  — 

Thus  is  the  restful  night  re-won." 

—  Fiona  Macleod. 

Scales  of  these  grays  from  lighter  to  darker  should  be  made  in  colored  paper 
for  the  purpose  of  developing  clear  color  perception.^  They  may  also  be  studied  in 
nature,  in  fabrics,  and  in  pottery.  Chords  of  color,  studied  from  nature,  may  be 
carried  out  in  colored  paper.  The  figures  in  historic  ornament  and  in  design  may 
also  be  carried  out  in  colored  paper,  as  suggested  in  the  several  exercises  on  these 
subjects  through  this  Manual. 

1  See  the  color  manual  "  Suggestions  for  Instruction  in  Color."  Published  by  The  Prang  Educa- 
tional Company.  The  references  to  drawing-book  pages  in  the  color  manual  do  not  apply  to  the  books 
of  the  Elementary  course. 


THE  STUDY  OF  COLOR.  99 

With  the  growing  introduction  of  water-color  into  the  schools,  there  is 
opportunity  for  enlarging  the  field  of  color  work.  Colored  paper  furnishes  standards 
of  color  to  be  studied  and  arranged  for  the  development  of  color  perception  and 
color  expression ;  the  providing  of  water-colors  as  school  material  adds  another 
means  of  color  expression,  which  is  most  responsive. 

Water-colors  may  be  used  for  work  in  Representation,  in  Composition  of  color 
harmonies  and  of  landscape,  and  in  Decoration.^  See  How  to  Use  Water- 
Colors,  page  62.  In  water-color,  the  use  of  three  colors  only  —  yellow,  red,  and 
blue  —  has  much  greater  educational  possibilities,  develops  more  individual  power 
and  gives  finer  results  in  a  direct  way  than  the  use  of  a  greater  number  of  colors. 
See  "Water-Colors,  page  61. 

The  printed  water-color  outlines  of  historic  units  furnish  a  remarkable  oppor- 
tunity for  color  composition.  As  the  outlines  are  all  ready>  the  pupil  can  give  him- 
self wholly  to  his  expression  of  color  harmony.     See  Blotted  Washes,  page  64. 

Fine  Thought. — The  Color  Manual  furnishes  suggestions  concerning  the 
various  colors  and  tones  to  be  used  in  this  year  and  the  method  of  study,  together 
with  poetical  quotations  to  enhance  the  delight  of  color  study.  Other  quotations 
are  added  here. 

Red.  —  The  children  will  be  eager  to  continue  their  search  for  references  to 
color  and  will  seek  for  examples  in  descriptions  of  flowers. 

"  O  poppies  in  the  meadow,  red  and  red 

And  red  and  red  through  all  the  ripening  corn." 

—  Edward  C.  Lefroy. 

They  will  also  be  delighted  if  successful  in  finding  some  suggestion  of  the 
shades  of  red.     The  wild  tulip  is  a  dark  red. 

"Mid  the  sharp,  siiort  emerald  wheat,  scarce  risen  three  fingers  well. 
The  wild  tulip  at  the  end  of  its  tube,  blows  out  its  great  red  bell." 

—  Robert  Browning. 

Orange.  —  Once  known  it  is  impossible  to  mistake  this  brilliant  color,  or  to 
pass  it  by  unnoticed.     It  makes  its  glowing  presence  known  in  many  gay  blossoms 

1  Mr.  Ross  Turner  gives  valuable  suggestions  in  his  "  Handbook  to  accompany  a  color  scheme  for 
the  kindergarten."     Published  by  The  Prang  Educational  Company. 


100  TEACHER'S   MANUAL. 

and  berries,  and  gives  a  hint  of  its  beauty  in  bird  and  butterfly,  in  the  dazzling  tones 
of  sunset,  and  the  changing  hues  of  the  fire.     Lowell  tells  of  the  oriole 


of  the 
and  that 


"  Cheering  his  labor  with  a  note 
Rich  as  the  orange  of  his  throat." 

"Gold  of  the  reddening  sunset." 

"  Here  dozed  a  iire  of  beechen  logs,  that  bred 
Strange  fancies  in  its  embers  golden-red." 


These  quotations  seem  particularly  apt  when  we  think  how  yellow  and  red, 
playing  together,  make  orange.  And  then  there  is  in  the  bitter-sweet  the  presence 
of  the  two  colors. 

"Now  overhead. 
Where  the  rivulet  loiters  and  stops, 
The  bitter-sweet  hangs  from  the  tops 
Of  the  alders  and  cherries 
Its  bunches  of  beautiful  berries. 
Orange  and  red." 

—  Archibald  Lampman. 

Yellow.  — The  gay  tones  of  yellow  are  described  in  many  a  pleasant  verse  : 

"  Upon  the  lawn  lie  floods  of  yellow  light, 
And  yellow  puff  balls,  downy,  soft  and  round. 
The  dandelions,  make  the  greensward  bright ; 
Upon  the  lawn  lie  floods  of  yellow  light. 
Above  are  yellow  buttercups  in  flight, 
Gay  sparks  of  light  that  flicker  from  the  ground  ; 
Upon  the  lawn  lie  floods  of  yellow  light. 
And  yellow  puff"  balls,  downy,  soft  and  round." 

—  Hannah  Parker  Kimball. 

And  the  yellow  is  very  likely  to  pass  into  yellow  green  as  in  the  lines  just 
quoted.     This  fresh  dehcate  color  is  an  emblem  of  springtime. 

"  Sweet  grows  the  world  to-day  and  fair, 
Seen  through  the  Springtime's  lovely  sheen,  — 
A  tender  mist  of  golden-g-reen 
That  veils  the  earth  and  fills  the  air." 

—  Harriet  McEwen  Kimball. 


THE    STUDY  OF  COLOR.  101 

Green.  —  The  search  for  reference  to  color  in  Uterature  is  an  unconscious 
training  in  color  discrimination.  The  children  cannot  fail  to  feel  the  quality  of 
this  color,  — 

''  For  green  is  to  the  eye,  what  to  the  ear  is  harmony,  or  to  the  smell  the  rose." 

The  pupils  will  also  like  some  reference  to  the  shades  and  to  the  variations 

in  hue :  — 

"  Behind  the  mowers,  on  the  amber  air, 

A  dark  green  beech-wood  rises  still  and  fair, 

A  white  path  winding  up  it  like  a  stair." 

—  Edmund  Gosse. 

"  In  spring  they  lie  one  broad  expanse  of  green, 

O'er  which  the  light  winds  run  with  glimmering  feet ; 
Here,  yellower  strips  track  out  the  creek  unseen. 

There,  darker  growths  o'er  hidden  ditches  meet ; 
And  purple  stains  show  where  the  blossoms  crowd. 
As  if  the  silent  shadows  of  a  cloud 
Hung  there  becalmed,  with  the  next  breath  to  fleet." 

—  James  Russell  Lowell. 

Blue  and  Violet. — The  children  may  make  special  search  for  references  to 
the  tones  of  blue  and  of  violet. 

"  The  daisy,  primrose,  violets  darkly  blue, 
And  polyanthus  of  unnumbered  dyes." 

—  James  Thomson. 
"  And  Canterbury  bells  a-swinging, 
Dim  blue  like  bits  of  April  sky." 

—  Rose  Terry  Cooke. 

"  Far  in  the  west  sinks  down  the  sun 
On  bars  of  violet  and  gold." 

—  Lewis  Morris. 

They  will  be  doubly  delighted  if  they  can  find  reference  to  two  colors  in 
association,  or  playing  one  into  the  other,  as  blue  into  green,  or  into  violet. 

"  Where,  like  a  shoaling  sea,  the  lovely  blue 
Played  into  green." 

"  Turkoise,  in  blue  stars  set,  with  lolite, 

That  violet-tinted  gem  which  somewhile  hides 

In  Indian  hills.     Azures  and  purples  bright 

Play  daintily  across  its  sparkling  sides." 

—  Edwin  Arnold. 


102  teacher's  manual. 

BOOK  7,  PAGE  5.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  5. 

REPRESENTATION. 

Nature. — Trees.     Form.     Life  and  Growth. 
Art.  —  Selection.     Choice  of  Aspect.     Rendering. 

[The  pupil  sketches  trees,  studies  the  examples  given  on  the  dra-w- 
ing-book  page  for  suggestions  as  to  rendering,  chooses  a  tree 
and  studies  its  most  beautiful  aspect,  and  draws  it  in  the  book, 
expressing  the  characteristics  of  the  tree  and  seeking  for  beauty 
in  the  rendering.] 

Tree  Structure.  — Before  starting  on  this  page,  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  the 
structure  of  a  tree  is  shown  in  the  trunk,  branches,  and  stems,  which  are  clothed  with 
foliage,  just  as  the  bones  and  muscles  in  men  and  animals  are  covered  with  flesh. 

Young  firs  of  various  kinds  often  have  their  lower  branches  very  near  or  touch- 
ing the  ground.  The  limbs  of  the  oak,  apple,  and  elm  divide  early  from  the  trunk, 
and  are  generally  massive.  The  maple  and  forest  pine  usually  branch  high  upon  the 
trunk.  Trees  like  the  elm,  ash,  walnut,  and  chestnut  are  similar  in  the  general  effect 
of  the  foliage,  though  varying  in  form.  The  apple  tree  in  trunk  and  branches  is 
much  like  a  gnarled  and  stunted  oak.  It  seldom  rises  above  the  buildings  near 
which  it  is  planted,  but  spreads  its  branches  to  a  considerable  distance  over  the 
ground.  The  bark  of  most  fruit  trees  is  rougher  and  darker  than  that  of  forest  trees, 
with  the  exception  of  that  of  the  cherry,  which  is  ligher  and  smoother,  something 
like  the  birch.  The  willow  often  grows  beside  streams  or  in  wet  places  by  the  road- 
side. It  is  a  tree  beloved  by  the  artist  as  its  tender  green  gives  great  beauty  and 
charm  to  a  spring  landscape  and  when  it  is  old  it  has  a  tendency  to  divide  in  the 
trunk,  forming  all  kinds  of  picturesque  angles. 

"As  the  oak  is  the  Hercules  of  the  trees  so  the  ash  may  be  called  the  Venus." 
The  ash  is  inferior  to  none  in  height,  gracefulness  of  form,  or  elegance  of  foliage. 
Though  seen  everywhere,  its  favorite  haunt  is  the  mountain  stream,  where  its  branches 
hang  gracefully  over  the  water,  adding  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  scene.  The  shape 
of  leaves  is  not  visible  in  shadow  or  in  the  mass  of  foliage  when  a  tree  is  far  distant. 
A  tree  in  the  foreground  will  show  its  character  in  its  general  form,  the  growth  and 
disposition  of  branches,  and  appearance  of  its  outhne  against  the  sky  or  other 
objects ;  it  will  depend  upon  its  position  and  relation  to  its  surroundings  as  to  the 
amount  of  detail  to  be  expressed. 


REPBESENTA  TION.  103 

The  structure  and  habits  of  trees  have  been  a  favorite  theme  for  poets  and 
writers  of  all  ages. 

''Mine  be  a  cot  beside  the  hill ; 
A  beehive's  hum  shall  soothe  my  ear ; 
A  willowy  brook,  that  turns  a  mill, 
With  many  a  fall  shall  linger  here."  —  Samuel  Rogers. 

"  These  green-robed  senators  of  mighty  woods, 
Tall  oaks,  branch-charmed  by  the  earnest  stars, 
Dream,  and  so  dream  all  night  without  a  stir."  —  John  Keats. 

*'  Amid  the  brook 
Gray  as  the  stone  to  which  it  clung,  half  root. 
Half  trunk,  the  young  ash  rises  from  the  rock ; 
And  there  the  parent  lifts  its  lofty  head, 
And  spreads  its  graceful  boughs ;  the  passing  wind 
With  twinkling  motion  lifts  the  silent  leaves 
And  shakes  its  rattling  tufts." —  Robert  Southey. 


'e> 


"  Who  liveth  by  the  rugged  pine 
Foundeth  a  heroic  line."  —  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

For  treatment  in  pencil  no  special  touch  or  stroke  can  be  recommended  for  the 
foliage  of  different  trees,  as  that  must  be  largely  the  result  of  attention,  study,  and 
individual  feeling. 

Trees  which  are  irregular  in  form  are  usually  the  most  effective,  —  as  an  old, 
stumpy,  and  hollow  willow,  with  scant  and  shaggy  foliage  which  is,  notwithstanding 
its  shattered  condition,  very  picturesque.  Corot  was  especially  fond  of  old  willows, 
and  rendered  them  with  a  peculiar  spiritual  beauty.  Daubigny  made  good  use  of 
tall  poplars  to  give  points  of  accent  to  his  landscapes  and  relieve  the  monotony  of 
the  composition,  while  Diaz  treated  the  deep  forests  something  as  Rembrandt  did  a 
group  of  figures,  by  concentrating  the  light  in  one  place,  thus  increasing  the  pervad- 
ing gloom. 

Suggestions  for  the  Lesson.  —  If  Drawing-book  7,  page  5,  is  to  be  drawn 
upon  at  a  time  of  year  when  the  pupils  can  go  out  of  doors  to  sketch,  a  preliminary 
study  could  be  made  from  nature,  involving  one  or  more  trees,  and  later  might  be  car- 
ried out  in  the  drawing-book.  If  out-of-door  sketching  is  not  practicable,  it  might 
be  well  for  the  pupils  to  copy  page  4  or  a  part  of  it,  as  it  shows  the  individual  charac- 
teristics of  various  trees.  If  a  part,  then  the  placing  upon  the  page  should  be  a  fea- 
ture of  the  lesson,  so  that  the  effect  will  be  good  as  a  whole.     If  an  individual  tree  is 


104  teachee\s  manual. 

copied,  then  a  slight  suggestion  of  distance  may  be  added.  A  good  composition 
could  be  made  by  having  the  oaks,  for  example,  in  the  middle  distance,  massing 
them  simply  as  on  page  4  and  adding  a  bit  of  roadway,  stones,  etc.,  for  the  fore- 
ground, or  perhaps  a  fence.  Lead  the  pupils  to  realize  that  we  do  not  see  directly 
all  the  details  of  a  landscape  when  we  look  at  it,  some  parts  are  out  of  focus  and 
simply  serve  as  accessories  to  the  object  or  objects  of  chief  interest.  If  the  trees 
are  used  as  a  part  of  one  or  more  compositions,  a  "  finder  "  will  be  useful  to  deter- 
mine the  best  size  and  placing  upon  the  paper.  A  finder  may  be  made  by  cutting 
an  opening  out  of  stiff  cardboard,  generally  an  oblong,  and  holding  it  between  the  eye 
and  the  object  or  scene  to  be  studied.  It  is  well  to  have  several  sizes  with  different 
shaped  openings,  as  oblongs  of  different  proportions.  They  are  very  practical  helps 
to  good  composition. 

Should  both  near  and  distant  trees  be  drawn,  the  effect  of  distance  can  be 
obtained  by  a  lighter  and  less  distinct  treatment.  Lowell  gives  a  suggestion  for  the 
treatment  of  the  distant  pine  in  color. 

"  Far  up  on  Katahdin  thou  towerest 
Purple-blue  with  the  distance  and  vast." 

—  James  Russell  Lowell. 

Drawing  (either  with  brush  or  pencil)  need  not,  by  necessity,  always  be  from 
nature.  Because  copying  is  sometimes  hfeless  and  meaningless,  it  does  not  prove 
that  it  has  no  value.  Let  us  use  a  variety  of  ways  to  promote  art  culture,  and 
guard  ourselves  against  too  great  devotion  to  any  one  way.  A  good  copy  carefully 
studied  with  an  effort  to  catch  the  spirit  of  the  original,  is  sometimes  of  far  more 
value  than  a  crude  and  hasty  drawing  directly  from  nature. 

"  Nothing  could  be  more  interesting  than  a  summary  of  the  different  ways  in  which 
different  artists  have  accomplished  their  ends  ;  how  some  have  painted  their  masterpieces 
out  in  the  open  air,  while  others  have  done  their  work  in  the  seclusion  of  a  studio  and 
from  notes  remarkable  in  their  brevity.  That  Corot  did  most  of  his  work  out  of  doors  is 
an  astonishing  fact ;  that  a  style  so  severe  should  have  been  developed  under  circum- 
stances so  disturbing  seems  almost  miraculous  ;  yet  so  it  was.  The  advantage  of  the  two 
methods  depends  entirely  on  temperament.  The  placid  and  unexcitable  person  may 
work  where  he  likes,  whilst  he  of  nervous  temperament  must  work  where  he  can."  — 
Arthur  Tomson. 

Connection  with  other  Studies.  — The  study  of  trees  for  artistic  rendering 
may  be  correlated  with  botany  and  with  manual  training.  For  example  — in  the  fall 
a  certain  tree  may  be  studied,  taking  its  seeds,  fruit  or  nut,  its  root,  bark,  manner  of 
branching,  buds,  leaves,  color  they  turn,  when  the  buds   form  and   how  they  go 


BEPRESENTA  TION. 


105 


through  the  winter,  etc.  The  children  go  out  and  observe  the  tree  (perhaps  find 
out  what  creatures  inhabit  the  tree).  In  connection  with  manual  training  they 
study  the  character  of  the  wood,  compare  it  with  other  woods,  and  consider  its 
industrial  use. 

Not  only  literature  but  history  has  much  of  interest  concerning  trees.  Among 
historic  trees  may  be  mentioned  :  — 

The  Charter  Oak  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  which  Captain  James  Wadsworth  con- 
cealed the  State  Charter  to  prevent  its  resumption  by  Geo.  Edward  Andros 
in  1687.     This  tree  was  blown  down  August,  1856. 

The  Washington  Elm  at  Cambridge  Common,  Mass.,  under  which  George  Washing- 
ton assumed  command  of  the  American  army  in  1775. 

A  celebrated  willow  overshadowing  the  tomb  of  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena.  Slips 
from  this  tree,  from  time  to  time,  have  been  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Such  a  tree  might  be  taken  for  a  subject,  the  details  looked  up  from  various 
sources  and  a  composition  or  abstract  written,  which  might  be  very  simply 
illustrated. 

.•\11  such  work  would  tend  to  cultivate  a  student  attitude  of  mind,  develop 
greater  power  of  observation,  and  more  feeling  and  interest  would  naturally  be  put 
into  art  expression.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  absorb  the  time  appointed 
for  definite  art  training  in  such  study,  valuable  as  it  may  be. 


106 


TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 


BOOK  7,  PAGE  6. 


SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  6. 


REPRESENTATION. 


-J 


I 


!- 


Type  Solids.  —  Cube.     Square  Prism.     Appearance.     Proportion. 
Convergence.     Foreshortening. 

Art.  —  Position  of  Models.     Rendering. 

[The  pupil  sketches  the  cube  and  square  prism  turned  in  various 
ways,  studies  thoughtfully  for  the  principles  of  perspective 
involved  in  the  appearance,  and  draws  in  the  book,  striving  for 
truth  of  representation  and  for  beauty  in  rendering.] 

Elements  of  Perspective.  —  In  pictorial  expression,  whatever  the  interest 
in  arrangement,  color,  or  light  and  shade  may  be,  good  drawing,  or  a  true  regard  for 

_^_ — _- the  appearance  of  objects,  must  always  stand  as  a  necessary 

factor.  Up  to  this  time  the  pupils  have  expressed  their  ideas 
of  the  appearance  of  type  forms  freely,  putting  down  their  im- 
pressions of  the  objects  as  seen.  It  seems  well  now  to  lead  the 
pupils  to  a  more  definite  study  of  the  principles  underlying  the 
pictorial  representation  of  objects,  so  that,  by  comparison  and 
reasoning,, the  drawing  of  a  large  class  of  objects  may  be  com- 
prehended with  as  much  ease  as  the  drawing  of  a  single  object, 
and  the  habit  of  correct  drawing  be  formed. 

They  are  now  old  enough  to  discuss  and  study  seriously 
some  of  these  leading  principles,  such  as  the  convergence  of 
lines  and  the  foreshortening  of  planes.  By  so  doing  they  will 
apply  the  principles  of  perspective  to  model  and  object  draw- 
ing. Owing  to  their  simplicity  of  structure,  type  solids  are 
the  best  of  objects  for  such  study.  They  can  be  invested  with 
interest  by  calling  the  attention  of  the  pupils  to  the  underly- 
ing construction  of  buildings.  One  with  towers  may  suggest 
the  square  or  the  hexagonal  prism. 

Some  artists  seem  to  have  a  feeling  that  perspective  be- 
ing an  exact  science,  any  particular  knowledge  of  it  may 
injure  the  aesthetic  feeUng,  yet  a  lack  of  understanding  in  this 
direction  often  causes  a  drawing  to  be  inaccurate  and  mis- 
leading, when  the  execution  is  otherwise  acceptable.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  enter  into  an  exhaustive  study  of  scientific 
perspective,  interesting  as  it  might  be,  in  order  to  grasp  some 
of  the  important  principles.  A  lack  of  some  knowledge  in  this 
direction  is  often  the  cause  of  perplexity  and  embarrassment. 


T 


{ 


I 


REPRESENTATION.  107 

It  is  no  unfcommon  thing  in  a  Studio  abroad  for  an  artist  to  call  to  his  aid  a 
professional  expert  who  tests  and  corrects  the  leading  lines  of  the  picture  which 
he  has  just  begun.  If  the  underlying  principles  of  perspective  and  the  foreshorten- 
ing of  objects  were  understood  by  the  artist,  this  would  not  be  necessary. 

Many  illustrations  in  current  books  and  magazines  are  very  faulty  in  perspective 
from  the  failure  to  understand  and  apply  a  few  simple  principles.  Who  has  not  seen 
the  floor  of  a  room  drawn  with  such  violently  converging  lines  that  it  looked  like  an 
inclined  plane  which  it  would  be  necessary  to  climb  rather  than  to  walk  comfortably 
upon?  It  is  necessary  to  be  careful  when  taking  a  position  to  draw  an  exterior  or 
interior  of  a  building  not  to  be  too  near  the  part  to  be  drawn  as  in  that  case  the 
leading  lines  will  appear  unnatural  and  in  too  violent  perspective.  Such  an  effect 
may  be  observed  in  some  photographs  of  buildings  when  the  position  of  the  camera 
has  by  necessity  been  too  near,  thus  distorting  the  perspective. 

Some  of  these  principles  are  discussed  more  fully  in  the  Appendix. 

The  Exercise.  —  On  this  page  there  may  be  drawn  a  square  prism  vertical  or 
horizontal,  or  a  cube  in  one  or  more  positions,  or  a  sphere  on  a  cube  turned.  If  the 
sphere  is  placed  upon  the  cube,  it  may  be  held  in  place  by  resting  it  upon  a  small 
brass  button  rirfg.  The  model  may  be  above  or  below  the  eye  and  should  be  placed 
so  as  to  make  angles  to  the  left  and  right.  If  one  large  drawing  is  made,  as  large 
as  will  look  well  in  the  space  upon  the  drawing-book  page,  let  the  line  be  free  and 
transparent.  Whether  the  drawing  \)e  of  a  model  or  of  an  object,  try  to  have  it  a 
lesson  in  seeing. 

"  I  am  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  greatest  thing  a  human  soul  ever  does  in  this 
world  is  to  SEE  something,  and  tell  what  it  saw  in  a  plain  way.  Hundreds  of  people  can 
talk  for  one  who  can  think,  but  thousands  can  think  for  one  who  can  SEE.  To  see  clearly 
is  poetry,  prophecy,  and  religion —  all  in  one."  —  John  Ruskin. 

If  the  principles  involved  seem  to  be  well  understood,  and  can  be  proved  by 
having  the  class  make  a  few  quick  sketches  upon  paper  as  preliminary  practice, 
then  a  line  drawing  of  a  chimney  with  perhaps  a  few  leading  lines  of  the  roof,  or 
the  top  of  a  square  towsr  or  cupola  may  be  placed  on  the  drawing-book  page. 
The  underlying  type  may  be  used  as  a  "  thumb-nail  "  sketch  in  the  upper  corner. 
As  an  object  slightly  below,  or  very  near  the  level' of  the  eye,  a  gate  post  and  a 
part  of  a  wall  may  prove  to  be  an  interesting  subject  and  a  good  illustration 
of  principles. 

Whatever  the  object  chosen  let  the  treatment  be  very  simple  and  carried  out  in 
line,  not  too  rigid,  but  careful  in  drawing.  Let  nothing  obscure  the  truth  of  con- 
struction in  the  object  drawn.     Faults  of  construction  in  a  drawing  are  often  partly 


108 


teacher's  manual. 


or  wholly  concealed  under  an  attractive  treatment  of  light  and  shade  or  color,  just 
as  some  pottery  or  porcelain  may  be  attractive  in  its  decoration,  but  poor  and  un- 
worthy in  form.     The  following  quotation  is  suggestive  in  this  connection. 

"  People  will  not  realize  sufficiently  this  absolute  truth  —  as  it  seems  to  me  —  that  art 
is  not  a  condition  designed  to  cover  the  defects  of  the  dish  that  has  failed." 

—  Gabriel  Mourey. 

Lead  the  pupil  to  see  that  all  parallel  horizontal  edges  when  seen  above  the  eye 
should  be  drawn  as  though  converging  downward  to  a  point  on  a  level  with  the  eye, 

and  that  all  lines  below  the  eye  (when  ex- 
^  pressing   parallel   edges)    should   appear   to 

converge  upward  to  a  point  on  the  level  of 
the  eye.  Such  points  cannot  be  placed  upon 
the  paper  without  making  the  drawing  too 
-^ —  "  small  or  the  perspective  too  violent,  but  must 
be  imagined.  Notice  in  the  illustration  of 
the  cube  that  the  vertical  sides  are  contained  in  planes  which  gradually  grow  less  in 
height  as  they  vanish  or  converge  toward  the  level  of  the  eye.  The  distance  from 
the  front  edge  of  the  cube  to  the  farther  edges  appears  less  than  the  height  of  the 
nearest  edge,  showing  that  the  sides  of  the  cube  are  foreshortened  because  turned 
from  the  eye.  The  top  of  the  cube  does  not  appear  as  a  square,  but,  if  not  far 
below  the  eye,  seems  very  much  foreshortened. 


VJ"! 


7P&' 


One  fact  must  be  well  kept  in  mind  by  teacher  and  pupils,  and  that  is  that 
objects  appear  unnatural  and  distorted  in  perspective  if  viewed  either  too  far  above, 
too  far  below,  or  too  near  the  eye.  For  that  reason  it  is  desirable  that  objects 
should  not  be  placed  too  low  nor  pupils  seated  too  near  them.  Another  advantage 
secured  by  having  sufficient  distance  from  the  eye  is  that  small  details  are  lost. 
There  is  much  significance  in  the  remark  of  an  artist  to  his  pupil  who  said  she 
saw  certain  unimportant  details.     "  Sit  farther  back,  you  see  too  much." 

Art  expression  is  in  a  way  analogous  to  life,  we  lose  breadth  of  view  if  we 
make  too  much  of  non-essentials. 


REPRESENTA  TION. 


109 


The  Examples.  —  The  illustrations  upon  the  drawing-book  page  should  be 
commented  upon,  first  getting  the  thought  of  the  pupils.  They  may  be  led  to  see 
and  explain  the  application  of  perspective  principles  to  them.  One  is  a  part  of  a 
stone  wall,  the  other  a  fragment  from  an  Egyptian  temple  at  Denderah,  nearly  buried 
in  sand,  and  seen  partly  above  the  eye.  The  wall  is  built  of  type  forms  and  clothed 
with  the  vine.  So  the  architect  and  the  Egyptian  build  with  types  and  clothe  these 
types  with  decorative  lines — with  curving  cornice,  with  flowering  capital  —  and  with 
divided  architrave  for  the  beauty  of  such  division. 


The  Old  Gate  of  Basle. 


The  Underlying  Type  Forms. 


110  teacher's  manual. 


BOOK  7,  PAGE  7.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  7. 

REPRESENTATION. 

Familiar   Objects.  —  Form.     Appearance. 

Art. —  Selection.     Arrangement.     Choice  of  Aspect.     Rendering. 

[The  pupil  arranges  familiar  objects,  singly  or  in  groups,  striving  for 
good  composition,  makes  sketches,  chooses  an  object  or  a  group, 
studies  its  most  beautiful  aspect,  and  dra'ws  it  in  the  book,  mak- 
ing application  of  the  principles  discovered  in  the  preceding 
exercise,  and  seeking  for  beauty  of  relationship  and  rendering.] 

Application  of  Principles.  —  As  the  object  of  this  exercise  is,  in  a  large 
degree,  to  apply  the  principles  learned  in  the  preceding  lesson,  the  greater  the  variety 
and  number  of  sketches  showing  a  power  to  express  convergence,  foreshortening, 
and  proportion,  the  better.  Encourage  the  pupils  to  sketch  interesting  bits  of 
furniture  or  groups  of  books  at  home,  illustrating  the  convergence  of  lines,  with- 
out finish  or  detail.  Lead  them  to  criticise  these  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
preceding  lesson,  and  to  correct  them.  The  carrying  out  of  the  perspective  princi- 
ples involved  in  such  sketches  would  help  greatly  toward  correct  drawing  in  school, 
either  from  the  object  or  from  one  of  the  sketches  selected  and  placed  upon  the 
drawing-book  page. 

Objects  to  be  drawn  and  Methods.  —  Books  are  always  available  in  the 
schoolroom,  and  interesting  groups  can  be  made  with  them.  They  should  be 
arranged  at  an  angle  and  slightly  below  the  eye.  The  pupils  should  study  to  find 
the  best  point  of  view.  Avoid  an  arrangement  exactly  like  the  illustration  on  the 
drawing-book  page. 

For  the  exercise  the  pupils  will  need  no  practice  paper  this  time,  but  may 
sketch  very  lightly  the  leading  lines  directly  on  the  drawing-book  page,  holding 
the  pencil  from  time  to  time  between  the  eye  and  the  group  in  order  to  see  more 
clearly  the  direction  of  the  converging  lines.  It  would  be  desirable  to  render  in 
outline,  accenting  those  parts  that  are  nearest  the  eye  or  that  seem  to  call  for 
emphasis.  Any  details  upon  the  back  or  sides  of  the  books  should  be  made  little 
of,  and  the  group  should  not  be  near  enough  to  the  eye  for  lettering  or  ornament  to 
be  distinctly  legible  or  definite.  A  few  suggestive  touches  for  such  details  where 
the  pupil  feels  that  they  should  be  placed  will  be  sufiicient. 

Color  has  its  value  as  a  means  of  art  training,  light  and  shade  may  help  to  the 
expression  of  beauty  which  the  pupil  sees  and  feels,  but  the  most  useful  method  foi 
the  practical  needs  of  life  is  the  power  to  draw  correctly  and  effectively  in  line. 


PLATE  VII. 


Books.  —  Edith  CI  irk. 


.i^^ 


Still  Life.  —  Edith  Clark. 


REPRESENTA  TION. 


Ill 


The  value  of  line  is  especially  recognized  by  artists,  as  they  realize  in  their  own 
work  the  power  of  line. 

''  Remember  always,  form  before  color  and  outline,  silhouette  before  modeling ;  not 
because  these  latter  are  of  less  importance,  but  because  they  can't  be  right  if  the  first  are 
wrong."  —  William  Morris. 

The  treatment  of  line  upon  the  drawing-book  page  is  an  excellent  example  for 
the  pupils  to  study.  The  objects  are  simply  rendered  and  the  quality  of  the  line  is 
free  and  transparent.  It  is  not  continuous  but  broken  in  places,  thus  helping  to 
express  texture. 

••Could  not  a  little  sermon  be  preached  upon  the  saving  grace  of  a  return  to  line? 
A  text  might  be  taken  enforcing  the  reticence  of  workmanship,  economy,  and  expressive- 
ness of  •  line.''  Your  excellent  young  men  know  something  of  Forain,  as  they  know 
Phil  May.  The  Japanese  they  will  receive  gladly.  I  should  like  to  take  them  into  other 
worlds  as  well.  For  when  you  insist  upon  the  expressiveness  of  Mine  '  and  the  economi- 
cal use  of  it.  you  insist  practically  upon  the  value  of  a  quality  recognized  not  only  by  the 
modern  Frenchman  and  the  Japanese,  but  the  property  rather  of  nearly  all  great  artists, 
from  tlie  days  when,  in  whatever  land,  pictorial  art  first  became  mature."  —  Frederick 
VVedmore. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  observe  carefully  the  covers  of  books,  and  to  notice  that  they 
project  beyond  the  leaves.     Unless  a  book  is  very  old  and  loose  in  the  binding,  the 


^^^>i^^ 


corners  of  the  upper  covers  will  be  directly  above  those  of  the  lower  cover  at  what- 
ever angle  the  book  maybe  placed.     An  open  book  resting  against  other  books 


112 


TEACHERS  MANUAL. 


makes  an  interesting  group,,  Be  careful  that  the  books  are  not  placed  too  far  below 
the  eye,  and  that  the  pupils  do  not  sit  so  near  as  to  see  too  much  detail.  A  draw- 
ing of  a  book  by  a  pupil  of  the  sixth  year  in  school  is  reproduced  on  a  smaller  scale 
below. 

A  simple  table  is  a  good  object  from  which  to  draw  and  to  illustrate  the  con- 
vergence of  lines.  Like  the  books,  it  should  be  placed  at  an  angle  with  the  eye. 
If  chairs  are  chosen,  then  they  should  be  plain  in  construction,  —  the  old-fashioned 
rush  bottom  (similar  to  the  illustration)  being  the  best.  If  possible,  place  chairs  at 
the  forward  end  of  each  aisle,  resting  on  the  floor  or  platform,  and  turned  at  an 
angle.  If  there  is  a  hall  or  general  assembly  room  in  the  school  building  in  which 
there  are  movable  chairs  or  settees,  a  hollow  circle  or  square  might  be  formed,  with 
one  or  more  chairs  for  study  placed  within.  Such  an  arrangement  gives  every  pupil 
a  different  point  of  view  and  unobstructed  vision. 

Let  each  child  decide  where  the  drawing  will  look  best  upon  the  page,  and  how 
large  it  will  be.  There  should  be  more  thinking  than  talking,  either  by  the  teacher 
or  pupils.  In  all  such  exercises  awaken  as  much  interest  as  possible  in  the  children, 
that  the  drawings  may  show  feeling  and  artistic  quality,  even  if  imperfectly  expressed. 
The  objects  in  "The  Angelus,"  on  page  2  of  the  drawing-book,  though  kept 
subordinate,  are  drawn  carefully,  and  with  much  feeling. 


Historic  Associations.  —  Chairs,  indeed  many  objects  in  furniture,  even 
have  historic  value.  At  Plymouth,  Mass.,  there  are  a  great  many  household  objects 
of  interest  connected  with  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  In  Boston  (Old  South  Church),  at 
Philadelphia  (Independence  Hall),  and  in  various  places  in  this  country,  there  are 
pieces  of  furniture  —  such  as  chairs,  tables,  etc.  —  associated  with  colonial  and  revo- 
lutionary times.  The  first  governor  of  Massachusetts,  John  Carver^  who  sailed  from 
Plymouth,  England,  in  the  Mayflower,  August,  1620,  brought  over  a  chair  —  which 
was  one  of  his  best  articles  of  furniture,  and  yet  was  very  simple  in  construction  — 
very  similar  to  the  one  upon  the  drawing-book  page,  only  with  arms  and  a  rush 


REPRESENTA  TION. 


113 


bottom.  How  forcibly  does  such  an  example  show  the  simplicity  of  taste  of  that 
period  !  Straight-backed  chairs  seem  to  be  associated  with  dignified,  simple,  and 
old-fashioned  manners. 

Coronation  and  altar  chairs  are  of  interest,  both  in  form  and  association,  and 
there  are  many  fine  examples  in  the  museums  and  churches  abroad.  Very  ancient 
furniture  is  of  great  solidity,  and  this  is  probably  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  first 
carpenters  were  carvers  rather  than  experts  in  the  use  of  the  saw  and  the  plane, 
because  in  the  earlier  states  of  culture  we  always  find  that  hollow  objects  —  such  as 
canoes,  boxes,  drinking-vessels,  drums,  etc.  —  were  dug  out  of  one  soUd  log  of  wood 
instead  of  being  put  together  in  several  pieces.  Later,  when  parts  of  furniture, 
especially  chairs,  were  worked  out  by  hand,  they  were  put  together  with  wooden 
pegs,  which  were  so  firmly  wedged  as  to  become  almost  a  part  of  the  chair 
itself. 

If  there  are  any  historic  chairs  in  the  vicinity,  perhaps  they  could  be  borrowed 
for  the  pupils  to  draw  from.  Some  of  the  pupils  may  have  suitable  chairs  at  home 
that  they  would  like  to  bring  for  the  lesson,  or  a  local  furniture  dealer  may  be  willing 
to  send  some  examples.  The  public  will  often  respond  readily  if  taken  into  confi- 
dence and  personally  appealed  to.  Home  sketches  might  be  made  of  chairs  having 
personal  significance  to  the  individual  pupils. 


*- 1  love  it,  I  love  it,  and  who  shall  dare 
To  chide  me  for  loving  that  old  arm  chair  ? " 


—  Eliza  Cook. 


John  Carver's  Chair. 


114  teacher's  manual. 

BOOK  7,  PAGE  8.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  8. 

REPRESENTATION. 

Nature.  —  Figure  Studies.     Action.     Proportion. 
Art.  —  The  Pose.     Choice  of  Aspect.     Rendering. 

[The  pupil  makes  sketches  of  a  figure  posing,  expressing  the  gen- 
eral characteristics,  and  omitting  detail,  makes  thoughtful 
criticism  of  the  work,  comparing  it  -with,  the  model,  and  draws 
in  the  draAving-book  from  the  pose,  studying  the  examples  for 
suggestions  as  to  rendering.] 

The  Example. — This  illustration  appeals  to  us  for  its  imaginative  quality. 
Perhaps  it  is  a  Puritan  maiden  standing  near  the  sea  and  thinking  of  her  English 
home.     The  dreamy  expression  of  the  face  shows  that  her  thoughts  are  far  away. 

Subordination  of  Detail. — The  rendering  of  the  figure  is  only  light  and 
dark,  while  the  fence  upon  which  she  leans  is  treated  without  special  accent  or  detail, 
and  thus  becomes  accessory  to  the  figure.  This  subordination  of  details  to  the  centre 
of  interest  often  makes  the  difference  between  a  work  of  art  and  a  literal  copy  of 
nature.  On  page  i  of  the  drawing-book  observe  that  Millet  subordinated  everything 
to  the  thought  to  be  expressed.  He  shows  the  ploughed  ground,  but  the  clods  of 
earth  are  not  prominent.  The  barrow,  basket,  and  hoe  are  not  obtrusive.  The  eye 
and  thought  concentrate  upon  the  figures  and  the  distant  spires.  It  will  be  inter- 
esting also  to  study  the  figures  by  La  Farge  on  page  2  of  the  drawing-book. 

A  pupil  of  Hunt's  took  note  of  some  of  his  remarks  and  advice  to  his  students, 
and  published  them  under  the  title  of  Ta/ks  on  Art,  from  which  the  following 
quotation  is  taken  :  — 

"  When  Browning  describes  the  ocean  or  a  movement  he  simply  swings  an  adverb  that 
tells  the  whole  story.  When  Michel  Angelo  used  details  he  knew  what  he  was  about.  If 
people  would  finish  their  large  masses  they  would  see  that  the  details  generally  find  them- 
selves completed.  If  you  are  drawing  an  eye,  draw  the  whole  mass  carefully.  To  draw  a 
nostril,  look  well  to  the  attachment  of  the  nose  to  the  cheek  and  the  outline  of  the  nostril, 
and  the  nostril  is  done.     But  you  make  details  like  drawing  currants  on  a  slice  of  cake." 

—  William  M.  Hunt. 

Method  of  Procedure.  —  If  it  is  feared  that  the  pupils  do  not  see  a  figure 
sufficiently  in  mass,  it  might  be  well,  after  studying  the  illustration  in  the  drawing- 
book  very  thoughtfully,  for  them  to  copy  it  upon  practice  paper,  considering  only  the 
entire  mass,  and  rendering  the  figure  in  silhouette  with  ink.  This  would  be  a  good 
preparation  for  the  study  from  life  to  be  placed  upon  the  drawing-book  page,  as  .they 


HEPRESENTA  TION. 


115 


116 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


would  by  necessity  be  led  away  from  small  details  in  trying  to  see  the  truths  of 
action,  mass,  and  proportion.  It  would  help  them  to  discriminate  between  essen- 
tials and  non-essentials,  so  that  later,  when  the  drawing  in  the  book  is  made,  the 
pupils  would  not  put  in  meaningless  lines.  A  well-proportioned  silhouette,  full  of 
action  and  life,  makes  a  very  effective  drawing. 

Ask  the  pupils  if  they  ever  saw  an  "  old-time  "  silhouette  which  was  usually  only 
the  head  and  shoulders  cut  from  black  paper,  mounted  upon  white.  These  were  in 
vogue  before  the  days  of  photography,  and  some  of  the  likenesses  cut  in  such  a  way 
were  very  remarkable. 


"  It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  represent  the  figure  in  silhouette  with  ink  as  a  preliminary 
to  drawing  in  outline.  We  do  not  really  see  things  in  outline  but  in  the  mass,  but  outline 
is  an  accepted  symbol,  a  language  which  everyone  recognizes  as  standing  for  something 
really  very  different.  A  sphere  we  know  to  be  solid  and  round,  yet  we  are  satisfied  to  have 
it  represented  by  a  circle  without  light  and  shade.  We  see  the  human  body  as  a  solid 
body,  consisting  of  many  surfaces  of  light  and  dark,  yet  we  know  these  may  be  repre- 
sented in  outline  and  give  an  intelligent  idea  to  the  observer." 

—  "  Talks  to  a  Beginner,"  T/te  Art  Student. 

Encourage  the  pupils  to  make  mental  notes,  as  well  as  pencil  sketches,  of  the 
leading  lines  of  some  characteristic  figure,  and  to  try  later  to  produce  it  from  memory. 
A  street  or  steam  car  may  furnish  interesting  motives.  A  baseball  or  a  football 
game  gives  an  excellent  opportunity  to  study  action,  and  to  observe  the  leading 
lines  of  the  figure  in  different  positions.  The  pupils  will  see  that  such  violent  action 
is  dependent  upon  the  angles  the  limbs  make.  A  small  sketch-book  or  a  pad  of 
paper  suitable  for  pencil  work  will  prove  valuable  as  a  help  to  memory  work,  and  as 
a  means  to  secure  still  more  thoughtful  and  careful  study  of  the  figure  than  the  time 
in  the  schoolroom  allows.  Encourage  sketching  at  home  from  hfe,  and  to  keep 
from  over-elaboration  of  details  suggest  that  it  be  done  in  silhouette  or  light  and 
dark.  The  silhouette,  with  brush  and  ink,  would  express  the  entire  mass  of  the 
figure,  while  in  working  in  light  and  dark  there  may  be  some  variation  and  a  slight 
division  into  parts  by  using  the  full  strength  of  the  ink  for  the  main  part  of  the  figure, 


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REPEESEN  TA  TION.  117 

and  ink  slightly  diluted  with  water  for  the  other  parts.  One  wash  may  be  prevented 
from  running  into  another  by  leaving  a  slight  space  of  paper  between  the  washes ; 
this  will  also  help  to  define  the  shape  of  the  parts.  This  method  is  admirably  illus- 
trated upon  page  15  of  the  drawing-book.  Notice  the  petals  of  the  roses  and  the 
tulips,  and  the  spaces  which  separate  the  parts.  When  a  form  is  indicated  by 
masses  of  light  and  dark  the  outline  of  these  masses  should  first  be  carefully  and 
lightly  drawn  with  pencil,  filling  it  in  afterwards.  This  is  the  method  employed  by 
most  of  the  artists  when  working  in  this  way,  and  the  more  carefully  this  outline  is 
made  the  more  fully  can  the  mass  be  put  in,  as  it  will  be  evident  just  where  it  should 
be  placed.  Such  work  is  sometimes  carried  out  on  tinted  paper,  using  it  as  a  back- 
ground, with  black  for  all  the  dark  and  white  paint  (Chinese  white)  for  the  high 
lights.  Much  of  the  work  of  Boutet  de  Monvel  (as  in  his  illustrations  of  Joan  of 
Arc)  is  carried  out  in  tones  of  light  and  dark.  Peter  Newell  employs  this  method 
in  his  humorous  sketches  in  current  numbers  of  Harper's  Magazine. 

Choice  of  Model.  — The  dress  will  not  be  hard  to  arrange,  but  it  will  be  better 
to  secure  a  young  girl  of  sixteen  or  eighteen  for  a  model,  if  possible,  rather  than  one 
of  the  pupils  in  the  room,  as  the  proportion  of  a  child's  figure  is  not  the  same  as 
that  of  the  youth  or  adult.  A  nurse's  costume  is  pleasing.  The  cap,  kerchief,  and 
apron  can  be  made  from  tissue  paper  very  quickly.  Perhaps  an  older  sister  of  one 
of  the  pupils  will  be  willing  to  pose  for  the  class.  If  it  seems  necessary  to  study 
a  girl  younger  than  the  sketch  upon  the  drawing-book  page  suggests,  the 
lesson  will  prove  more  interesting  if  something  in  the  way  of  costume  is  attempted, 
even  if  not  directly  along  the  same  lines.  A  girl  in  a  long  waterproof  garment, 
carrying  a  school  satchel,  or  an  umbrella  closed  or  open,  and  held  over  the  head, 
will  make  a  characteristic  sketch,  and,  well  managed,  will  not  suggest  too  much 
detail.  A  boy  holding  his  cap  high  above  his  head  as  though  about  to  cheer,  is  an 
interesting  attitude,  and  gives  a  good  chance  to  study  long  leading  lines.  If  the  pose 
is  one  calling  for  considerable  action  the  model  will  need  frequent  short  times  to 
rest,  as  sustained  action  in  some  positions  becomes  torture,  which  a  manly  boy  might 
endure  at  the  expense  of  his  nerves,  rather  than  ask  for  relief.  During  the  "rests" 
a  good  chance  occurs  for  the  teacher  to  give  a  helping  comment  here  and  there, 
where  it  seems  needed.  Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  help  too  much.  Emerson 
says,  "  Every  brave  youth  is  training  to  ride  and  rule  his  own  dragon,"  and  the  ear- 
nest teacher  must  beware  and  not  disturb  the  individuality  of  each  pupil's  work. 

Underlying  Structure.  — Nature  delights  in  angularity  in  her  curves,  if  we 
may  so  express  it,  balancing  constantly  the  most  beautiful  curves  with  bits  of  strong 


118 


TEACHER' S  MANUAL. 


straight  lines.  We  see  this  in  the  trunks  and  branches  of  trees,  as  well  as  the 
more  subtile  construction  of  the  human  body.  Babies  are  all  curves,  with  little  or 
no  neck,  wrists,  or  ankles  ;  later  the  relation  and  proportion  of  the  parts  change,  and 
curves  modify.  The  head  is  much  larger,  in  proportion  to  the  whole  figure,  in  the 
child  than  in  the  adult.  Sometimes  illustrators  overlook  this  fact,  and  children  are 
drawn  so  as  to  look  like  little  old  men  and  women.  A  common  fault,  also,  is  that  of 
drawing  the  hands  and  feet  too  small,  with  the  curves  too  round  and  smooth,  and 
showing  no  underlying  bony  structure  or  suggestion  of  muscles. 

The  long  leading  lines  of  a  figure  once  obtained,  the  proportions  are  easily 
found  and  their  relation  to  each  other.  One  line  may  be  corrected  by  another 
drawn  over  it.  Discourage  erasing,  as  it  easily  becomes  a  pernicious  habit.  This 
method  of  starting  will  tend  to  keep  the  pupils  from  making  too  much  of  minor 
parts.  Artists  often  use  a  "  plumb-line  "  as  a  help  to  determine  the  direction  of 
other  lines.  Such  a  line  is  made  by  tying  a  weight,  usually  a  piece  of  lead  (like  the 
sinker  of  a  fish  line)  to  a  string.  This  string  is  held  between  the  eye  and  the 
model,  the  weight  dropping  near  the  floor.  If  the  use  of  such  a  line  is  not  practi- 
cable in  the  schoolroom,  tell  the  pupils  about  it,  and  ask  them  to  compare  the  angles 
of  the  figure  with  some  vertical  edge  near  by,  as  the  edge  of  a  wall  or  a  window. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  BLANK  PAGES.  119 


Suggestions  for  the   Blank   Pages  in  Book  7. 

Choice.  —  Some  of  the  teachers  may  wish  to  use  the  space  on  all  of  the 
pages  for  progressive  work  in  some  particular  line,  as  in  out-door  sketching,  or  in 
flower  composition,  in  which  Mr.  Dow's  Examples,  on  page  15  of  the  draw- 
ing-book, will  be  helpful  —  or  for  advanced  work  in  decoration,  and  this  will  prove 
especially  enjoyable  if  brush-work  is  possible.  Individual  pupils  may  be  permitted 
to  copy  some  of  the  work  on  the  illustrative  pages.  In  some  instances  it  may 
be  considered  desirable  to  devote  these  pages  entirely  to  color  work. 

For  those  who  desire  work  definitely  laid  out  for  the  four  pages,  the  following 
lines  are  suggested,  to  be  carried  out  on  the  respective  pages  in  the  order  given. 

1.  The  pose  with  accessories. 

2.  Landscape  with  trees. 

3.  Berries  in  composition  —  brush-work  or  work  in  colored  paper. 

4.  Window  sketching  —  roofs  or  towers. 

The  Pose  with  Accessories.  —  This  may  be  carried  out  directly  from 
the  pose  or  various  sketches  having  been  made  of  the  pose,  the  drawing  may  be 
made  from  the  mental  images  received.  The  following  poems  suggest  poses  within 
the  reach  of  the  pupils.  The  first  may  be  easily  arranged  and  brings  in  the 
objects  already  studied  on  page  7  of  the  drawing-book. 

"Deep  in  his  oaken  elbow-chair,  Bright-plumaged  birds  of  tropic  clime 

In  fur-trimmed  gown,  the  old-world  student     Lie  right  and  left,  a  strange  collection, 
Sits  toiling  with  concentrate  air,  With  fruitage  of  the  autumn-time, 

And  earnest  underlip  protrudent ;  The  frugal  scholar's  spare  reflection. 

Around  him,  piled  on  floor  and  desk, 

His  open  books  in  wealth  unstinted,  —         "  On  sill  and  shelf  a  dusty  bloom. 
Black  letter  chronicles  grotesque,  —  Sad  scandal  to  industrious  Janet ; 

The  mellow  pages  Aldus  printed.  Dust  on  the  gods  from  Pharaoh's  tomb, 

On  figured  globe  and  pictured  planet ; 

"  A  winter  sunbeam  warms  the  pane  A  dreamful  silence  holds  the  house, 

Where  proudly  ramps  the  lion  argent ;  Time  checks  his  passage  down  the  ages, 

Fleshless  and  grim,  an  Afric  crane  And  tempts  a  greatly-daring  mouse 

Stands  facing,  like  some  spectral  sergeant ;      To  feast  on  Pliny's  yellowing  pages." 

—  Lord  Houghton 


120 


TEACHER^S  MANUAL. 


The  second  adds  some  new  elements  —  the  trees  famihar,  however,  through 
the  study  for  page  5  of  the  drawing-book  —  and  calls  for  more  thought  and  more 
imaginative  powers.     Two  or  more  pictures  can  be  obtained  from  this  poem  :  — 


^'The  windows  open  on  the  park 

Where  the  tall  trees,  from  glade  to  glade, 
With  arching  foliage  greenly  dark, 
Bathe  all  the  summer  lawns  in  shade. 

*'■  I  turn  about  to  rest  anew 

My  head  in  yonder  easy-chair, 
When  lo !  the  landscape  still  I  view, 
Reflected  in  the  mirror  there. 

"Idly  I  smile,  as  o'er  and  o'er 

Two  parks  to  right  and  left  of  me. 
Now  through  the  glass,  now  thro'  the  door 
Repeat  each  other,  tree  for  tree  ; 

.  ■"  And,  by  a  pretty  sort  of  chance. 
The  two  young  sisters  sit  apart, 


Complete  in  dainty  elegance, 
To  play  the  music  of  Mozart. 

"Just  as  the  landscape  double  seems, 
The  other's  copy  each  appears, 
And  the  same  golden  jewel  gleams 
Repeated  in  the  four  small  ears. 

"  Their  eyes  upon  the  keys  are  bent, 
So  I  may  scan,  as  I  repose, 
The  same  rose  in  their  tresses  blent, 
And  on  each  mouth  too  the  same  rose. 

"  And,  sometimes,  rising  from  my  place, 
I  steal  to  the  piano  near, 
And  lean  upon  the  ebon  case 
To  see  them  rather  than  to  hear." 

—  Selected,  Translation  from  Coppee. 


Landscape  with  Trees.  —  At  this  time  of  year  it  may  not  be  practicable  to 
make  out-door  sketches.  But  pupils  may  be  asked  to  draw  from  memory  or  to 
•compose  a  landscape  in  which  there  shall  be  trees. 


''  And  here's  the  field  with  light  aglow, 
How  fresh  its  boundary  lime  trees  show, 

And  how  its  wet  leaves  trembling  shine  ! 
Between  their  trunks  come  through  to  me 
The  morning  sparkles  of  the  sea, 
Below  the  level  browsing  Hne." 

—  Jean  Ingelow. 


"  Under  the  open  window  where  they  stood 
A  river  ran ;  green  farm-lands  lay  beyond, 
And  forests,  dark  against  the  dreamy  hill." 


—  Lucy  Larcom. 


PLATE    IX. 


Landscape  Compositions  in   Ink.  —  By  Pupils  of  the   Sixth  Year. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR   BLANK  PAGES.  121 

Or  the  page  may  be  given  to  sketches  of  single  trees,  selecting  different  kinds 
to  get  different  characteristics. 

"  Time  is  never  wasted,  listening  to  the  trees  ; 
If  to  heaven  as  grandly  we  arose  as  these, 
Holding  toward  each  other  half  their  kindly  grace, 
Haply  we  were  worthier  of  our  human  place. 

"  Bending  down  to  meet  you  on  the  hillside  path, 
Birch  and  oak  and  maple  each  his  welcome  hath  ; 
Each  his  own  fine  cadence,  his  familiar  word. 
By  the  ear  accustomed,  always  plainly  heard. 

"  Every  tree  gives  answer  to  some  different  mood  ; 
This  one  helps  you,  climbing :  that  for  rest  is  good  : 
Beckoning  friends,  companions,  sentinels,  they  are ; 
Good  to  live  and  die  with,  good  to  greet  afar." 

—  Lucy  Larcom. 

Or  the  landscape  may  be  carried  out  in  water  color. 

"  An  artist  one  day  at  his  easel  stood 

And  sketched  with  a  pencil  free. 

The  gold  of  the  meadow,  the  green  of  the  wood. 

And  the  purple  and  gray  of  the  sea." 

—  Lucy  Larcom. 

Here  is  a  very  suggestive  verse,  to  be  carried  out  in  broad,  simple  effects. 
Flat  washes  would  be  very  telling. 

"  The  world  lies  east ;  how  ample,  the  marsh  and  the  sea  and  the  sky  ! 
A  league  and  a  league  of  marsh-grass,  waist-high,  broad  in  the  blade, 
Green,  and  all  of  a  height,  and  unflecked  with  a  light  or  a  shade, 
Stretch  leisurely  off,  in  a  pleasant  plain, 
To  the  terminal  blue  of  the  main."  —  Sidney  Lanier. 

Berries  in  Composition.  —  One  or  two  sprays  of  berries  can  be  arranged  in 
an  oblong  —  vertical  if  the  stem  is  sturdy  and  shoots  upward  —  vertical  or  horizontal 
according  to  selection  if  the  growth  is  flexible.  The  arrangement  should  be  care- 
fully thought  out  to  secure  balance  without  symmetry.  Study  the  illustrations  on 
page  15  of  the  drawing-book  to  see  how  lines  and  spaces  balance.  While  a  sym- 
metrical arrangement  is  not  desired  here,  symmetry  should  be  the  foundation  of  the 
arrangement,  for  constant  thought  should  be  given  to  the  relations  of  the  parts 
with  regard  to  the  centre.    The  arrangement  should  be  carried  out  in  ink,  sharp  and 


I. 29 


teacher's  manual. 


brilliant  or  with  water-color  in  flat  washes,  no  attempt  being  made  at  light  and 
shade. 


Work  in  Colored  Paper.  —  If  the  page  is  to  be  used  for  colored  paper,  it 
would  be  better  not  to  carry  out  the  work  until  after  the  drawing-book  pages  in 
historic  ornament  have  been  carried  out.  In  the  text  for  those  exercises  there  will 
be  found  some  suggestions.  .  See  also  page  95-101  of  this  manual.  Remember  that 
if  the  opposite  page  was  carried  out  in  water-color,  it  will  not  be  well  to  have  work 
in  colored  paper  on  this  page. 

Window  Sketching — Roofs  or  Towers.  —  A  number  of  sketches  of 
roofs  or  towers  visible  from  different  windows  may  be  made  on  this  page.  It  is  quite 
surprising  how  effective  a  few  roofs  may  be  made  if  treated  in  the  right  way.  The 
details  should  be  omitted  —  only  the  essentials  rendered  —  simple,  strong  drawing  — 
not  being  particular  to  join  all  lines  at  the  corners  and  sometimes  leaving  out  a 
part  of  a  line,  leaving  something  to  the  imagination. 

If  there  is  nothing  to  be  seen  from  the  window,  it  will  be  profitable  to  have  the 
pupils  translate  some  of  the  illustrations  on  page  16  of  the  drawing-book  into  sim- 
ple, outline  work.     The  illustration  is  from  a  drawing  by  a  pupil  of  the  sixth  year. 

"  Dropping  blossoms  yellow, 
Crowd  fair  lindens  blooming ; 
And  around  stand  mellow, 
Peaked  old  houses  looming. 

"  Gables  piled  together, 
Rising  high  and  higher ; 
Moonlight,  this  clear  weather:  — 
Then  from  the  church  spire, 

"  Into  space  out-sweeping, 
As  the  moon  shines  clearer, 
Myriad  bats  are  keeping 
Revels  queer  and  queerer, 

"  Whirling  in  strange  manner 
From  this  Christian  steeple, 
Worshipping  Diana, 
Scandalizing  people  ! " 

—  Hannah  Parker  Kimball 


^ii 


■ '  }-■     \  ^i> 


REPRESENT  A  TION. 


123 


BOOK  7,  PAGE  9. 


REPRESENTATION 


SIXTH   YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  9. 


Square  Towers.  —  Window   Study.      Form.      Proportion.      Appear- 
ance.     Space  Relations. 
Art.  —  Selection.      Choice  of  Aspect.      Rendering. 

[The  pupil  sketches  towers  seen  from  the  window,  chooses  the 
most  beautiful  aspects,  t-tudies  thoughtfully,  considering  ap- 
pearance, form,  proportion,  surroundings,  and  the  space  re- 
lations shown,  and  draw^s  the  tower  or  towers,  or  composition 
with  towers,  in  the  book,  seeking  for  beauty  of  effect.] 

Architectural  Construction.  —  In  some  parts  of  Italy  during  the  Gothic 
period  detached  buildings  were  erected  for  the  purpose  of  containing  bells.     The 
illustration  shows  one  of  the  iiiost  famous,  the  Campanile  of  Giotto  in  Florence,  which 
Charles  Eliot  Norton  calls  "  the  most  exquisite  building 
of  modern  times,"  and  Longfellow  characterizes  as 

"  The  lily  of  Florence  blossoming  in  stone, 
A  vision,  a  delight,  and  a  desire." 

The  illustration  of  the  tower  is  drawn  with  the  level 
of  the  eye  about  at  the  first  marked  division  of  spaces 
below  the  upper  windows.  This  shows  that  the  "  point 
of  view  "  was  taken  opposite  that  part  of  the  building. 

Collections.  —  In  leading  to  an  appreciation  of 
towers,  pictures  or  photographs  of  fine  historic  towers 
may  be  studied,  —  the  towers  of  Westminster  Abbey, 
of  Notre  Dame,  the  Campanile  in  St.  Mark's  Square, 
and  others.  Papers  and  magazines  abound  in  illustra- 
tions of  architectural  features,  and  the  Architectural 
Record  and  the  Architectural  Review  give  excellent 
examples  for  study.  The  Prang  Note-book  Illustra- 
tions give  some  fine  specimens  of  architecture  with 
towers.  Pupils  are  fond  of  collecting  pictures  showing 
points  of  interest,  and  are  much  helped  by  so  doing. 

That  is,  they  are  helped  if  such  a  collection  means  something  more  to  them  than 
merely  a  number  of  pictures  of  historic  buildings,  the  collection  consisting  of  a 
greater  or  larger  amount  according  to  the  interest  and  enterprise  of  the  individual 
making  the  collection.     As  the  art  and  architecture  of  a  country  tell  the  story  of  its 


:< 


Giotto's  Tower. 


124  teacher's  manual. 

people,  so  each  picture  may  tell  its  own  story  of  history,  legend,  or  verse  all  inter- 
woven with  the  art  of  the  time. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  desirable  to  have  a  school  collection,  which  may  be  kept  in 
a  portfolio  or  several  manila  paper  scrap-books,  and  occasionally  passed  about  the 
room  for  comment  and  study.  Pupils  will  be  interested  to  contribute  to  such  a  col- 
lection by  adding  pictures  or  new  thought  or  light  upon  what  they  have.  Sheets  of 
paper  could  be  attached  to  single  pictures  (if  they  are  kept  in  a  portfolio)  or  inserted 
in  the  scrap-books,  upon  which  to  write  additional  information.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary however,  to  guard  against  a  mere  collection  of  facts,  such  as  dates,  names,  and 
styles,  which  are  unimportant  compared  with  the  art  feeling  shown  in  the  architec- 
ture, and  its  broad  meaning  as  an  expression  of  the  life  and  art  of  a  people,  by 
whom  and  for  whom  such  masterpieces  were  built.  Art  teaching  should  be  broad 
enough  to  cover  all  its  various  phases. 

"  Surely  impressions  only  of  things  are  not  sufficient  for  all  of  us.  Cultivation  must 
increase  the  subtlety  of  our  emotions.  Our  interest  grows  and  our  delight  in  the  pictorial 
representations  of  a  wider  range  of  subject,  embracing  history,  architecture,  legend,  details 
of  things  beautiful  in  themselves,  not  only  from  their  craftmanship,  but  the  disposition  on 
them  of  materials,  precious  from  their  receptivity  of  color  harmonies,  and  from  many  other 
combinations,  showing  them  as  priceless  expressions  of  greater  minds. —  S.  R.  Spence. 

Associations.  —  History  and  literature  are  full  of  beautiful  associations  and 
legends  regarding  towers.  The  Tower  of  London,  what  tales  it  could  tell  could  it 
speak  !  The  origin  of  towers,  the  watch-towers  of  a  city  when  it  was  necessary  always 
to  be  ready  for  an  enemy  !  The  tower  as  the  home  of  the  bells  ;  the  ringing  of  the 
bells  on  many  joyful  occasions ;  the  legend  that  the  angels  ring  the  bells  on 
Christmas  Eve  !  All  these  things  can  be  brought  to  the  thought  of  the  pupils  and 
give  food  for  the  imagination  and  for  creative  power.  The  young  mind  needs 
quickening  and  awakening  to  the  beauty  and  meaning  of  the  past  as  well  as  its 
immediate  surroundings. 

"  So  shall  the  drudge  in  dusty  frock 
Spy  behind  the  city  clock 
Retinues  of  airy  Kings, 
Skirts  of  angels,  starry  wings, 
His  fathers  shining  in  bright  fables, 
His  children  fed  at  heavenly  tables." 

—  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

General  Method.  —  As  most  school  buildings  are  built  in  an  open  space, 
there  are  often  one  or  more  towers  to  be  seen  from  the  windows.  Cathedrals 
and  churches  generally  have  bell-towers  which,  when  based  upon  the  form  of  the 


REP  RE  SEN  TA  TION. 


125 


square  prism,  will  show  the  same  constructional  lines.  Sometimes  one  is  suf- 
ficiently near  to  be  seen  from  the  schoolroom  seats.  When  this  is  not  the  case, 
let  the  pupils  make  quick  sketches  upon  practice  paper  at  the  windows  for  the 
leading  lines,  noting  carefully  the  kinds  of  windows,  if  any,  in  the  tower  and  their 
position  in  relation  to  other  parts ;  then  the  sketch  may  be  reproduced  in  the  book, 
adding  details  from  memory,  occasionally  verifying  the  drawing  by  going  to  the 
window. 

It  may  be  best  for  the  pupils  to  go  out  and  study  towers,  fix  the  lines  in  their 
minds  and  draw  later  from  memory.  Attractive  sketches  may  often  be  made  of  all 
the  various  towers  in  the  town,  or  school  district,  studying  the  excellences  and 
defects.     If  practicable,  the  entire  class  might  go  out-doors  sketching. 

Horizon  in  Relation  to  the  Eye.  —  If  the  school  building  is  upon  a  hill 
overlooking  some  houses,  then  the  horizon  will  be  high  and  the  upper  lines  of  the 
tower  may  be  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  while  some  of  the  surrounding  roofs 


will  be  below  the  eye.  The  horizon  will  also  appear  higher  from  an  upper  window 
than  from  the  ground  floor.  If  the  tower  of  the  church  or  building  is  the  only  part 
entirely  drawn,  it  would  be  well  to  signify  by  suggestive  lines  some  of  the  surround- 
ings. If  a  few  are  given,  they  will  show  that  the  tower  has  a  solid  connection  with 
the  building  and  is  not  floating  in  space. 

Position  of  Apex,  Windows,  and  Some  Features  of  Construction. — 
As  it  is  a  common  fault  for  the  apex  of  a  tower  to  be  drawn  out  of  its  proper 
position  it  will  be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  should  be  drawn  directly 
over   the  centre  of  the  tower.      This   centre  can  be  easily  obtained  by  drawing 


126  teacher's  manual. 

light  lines  for  a  horizontal  section  of  the  tower,  and  diagonals  drawn  across  this 
perspective  square  will  give  the  position  of  the  apex.  The  sketches  above  will 
make  the  method  clear.  The  perspective  centre  of  a  window  on  the  side  of  a  tower 
can  be  obtained  by  the  same  method,  by  sketching  the  diagonals  of  a  section  of  the 
side.  Spaces  appear  to  decrease  the  farther  they  are  from  the  eye,  thus  the  distance 
from  the  vertical  edge  of  a  window  to  the  nearer  edge  of  the  tower  will  be  greater 
than  the  distance  from  the  farther  edge  of  the  window  to  the  farther  edge  of  the 
tower,  although  the  spaces  are  actually  the  same.  This  is  on  the  same  principle 
that  makes  a  series  of  telegraph  poles  or  railroad  ties  appear  nearer  together  the 
farther  they  are  from  the  eye,  while  nearly  the  same  distance  apart. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  observe  carefully  the  importance  of  the  strong  upright  lines 
of  a  tower  which  give  strength  and  character.  When  these  are  crossed  by  horizon- 
tals, effective  spaces  are  produced  which  in  turn  are  cut  by  the  window  spaces. 
The  force  and  beauty  of  upright  construction  lines  may  be  seen  in  many  things,  the 
tall  pine  upon  the  hilltop,  the  grim  sentinel  and  landmark  for  many  a  mile,  —  the 
masts  of  ships,  flagstaffs,  monuments,  —  such  as  Bunker  Hill  and  Washington 
Monuments. 

Foreshortening.  —  If  round  towers  are  visible  (as  the  slight  suggestion  of 
the  dome  in  drawing-book,  page  9),  recall  the  appearance  of  the  base  of  the  cone 
above  and  below  the  eye.  An  occasional  quick  review  of  the  appearance  of  the 
different  solids  in  different  positions  may  be  made  interesting  and  profitable. 

Suggestions  for  the  Teacher.  —  In  this  work  the  class  will  need  to  work 
in  detachments.  Pupils  who  cannot  be  at  the  window  might  be  making  a  compo- 
sition from  the  drawing  on  the  drawing-book  page  or  from  some  one  of  the  pictures 
of  towers  collected  by  the  class.  A  teacher  of  architecture  in  one  of  the  leading 
colleges  found  this  translation  of  photographs  into  line  drawings  an  effective  means 
of  study. 

Suggestions  for  the  Pupils.  —  Study  the  view  from  each  schoolroom  window.  How  many 
towers  can  you  find?  Which  seems  most  beautiful  to  you?  Compare  this  tower  with 
the  picture  on  the  drawing-book  page.  What  resemblances?  Look  at  the  drawing  of 
Giotto's  tower  and  see  the  parts  of  other  buildings  sketched  around  it.  Cut  an  open- 
ing one  inch  by  two  inches,  or  smaller,  in  a  piece  of  paper.  Hold  the  paper  so  the 
opening  is  vertical,  and  look  at  the  tower  you  like  through  it.  Try  with  the  opening 
horizontal.  Study  the  tower  and  its  surroundings.  Sketch  either  a  vertical  or  hori- 
zontal oblong  on  your  paper  and  within  it  the  tower  and  its  surroundings.  Study  the 
example  in  the  book  for  ideas  of  finishing  your  drawing.  Make  one  or  more  of  these 
sketches  in  your  book,  arranging  them  with  care. 


THE   SUBJECT   OF    DECORATION. 

In  the  earlier  books  of  this  series  children  have  been  lead, 
through  both  observation  and  original  experiment,  to  feel  the  main 
essentials  of  beauty  in  ornament.  From  the  present  point  onward, 
the  effort  is  not  only  to  deepen  and  strengthen  their  sense  of  beauty 
and  their  creative  imagination,  but  also  to  lead  them  to  use  in  their 
decorative  design  all  the  knowledge  and  skill  acquired  through  other 
lines  of  art  instruction,  and  to  apply  them  to  definite  ends  or  pur- 
poses. Studies  of  landscape,  animals  and  human  figures,  as  well  as 
studies  of  plant  growth,  geometric  form  and  simple  space  divisions, 
are  to  be  used  as  material  and  as  means  in  creative  compositions. 

Henceforth  the  underlying  ideas  of  principality,  opposition  and 
balance  are  to  be  more  definitely  studied ;  symmetry,  proportion, 
rhythm,  contrast,  breadth,  stability  and  repose  are  to  be  sought  for 
in  original  work.  Examples  of  the  best  mural  decoration  of  living 
masters  are  to  be  studied  as  the  course  advances,  for  their  inspira- 
tion and  suggestiveness  along  these  lines.  It  is  in  Decoration  of 
the  highest  type  that  man's  art  creation  culminates,  completing  and 
crowning  the  best  industrial  art  with  the  noblest  phase  of  fine  art. 
It  is  this  phase  of  art  study  which  gives  the  greatest  opportunity  for 
the  development  of  the  highest  creative  powers  of  the  pupils. 


127 


128 


teacher's  manual. 


BOOK  7,  PAGE  II. 


SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE   ir 


DECORATION. 

Examples.  —  Historic  Ornament.     Egyptian.     Space  Relations. 
Art.  —  Selection.     Rendering.     Expression  of  Color. 

[The  pupil  studies  the  examples  in  the  drawing-book,  observing 
beauty  of  form  and  curvature,  and  of  space  relations;  sketches 
several,  chooses  t-wo  or  more,  and  reproduces  them  in  the  draw- 
ing-book, planning  carefully  for  the  space  relations  produced, 
showing  color  by  pencil-painting,  or  the  brush,  if  desired,  and 
seeking  for  beauty  in  relationship  and  in  color  expression.] 

Historic    Ornament. — The    needs   of  many   people   are   primarily   food, 

clothing,  and  shelter ;  then  follows  that  higher 

spiritual  want,  the  desire  for  beauty.     It  is  of 

I      M         Jw    M  great  interest  to  see  how  the  various  people 

I  j^\  ^^i\    KL  ^^  ^^^  world  have  striven  to  meet  that  desire. 

<mM^  r//B  1m^  ^^   manifests   itself  in   fine,  pottery   forms,  in 

\w      [w       ^^  graceful  line  and  harmonious  color  in  clothing, 

and    in  imposing  architecture  —  all   enriched 
with  fine  ornament. 

It  is  of  even  greater  interest  to  see  that 
while  these  various  peoples  meet  their  various 
conditions  and  therefore  produce  divers  re- 
sults, they  all  exemplify  in  their  finest  results 
certain  principles  of  beauty.  See  pages  29- 
31.  To  show  the  development  of  beauty  in 
ornament  by  the  various  nations  there  have 
.arisen  collections  of  the  ornament  of  the 
various  leading  people  called  Historic  Orna- 
ment. See  page  28  for  a  statement  of  the 
leading  styles. 

Through  fine  examples  of  historic  ornament, 
the  principles  that  govern  the  production  of 
the  beautiful  are  presented  concretely,  and  the 
pupils  while  studying  and  drawing  them  con- 
tinually feel  their  influence,  thus  gaining  not 
only  in  knowledge,  but  also  in  culture.  For 
the  constant  association  with  fine  forms  Alls 
the    mind    with    beauty    and,    with    the    right 


DECORATION.  12i) 

Stimulus,    makes   the    creation    of   beauty   possible.       And   still    further,   as    Plato 
says,  — 

"  The  beauties  of  earth  are  steps  by  which  man  mounts  heavenward,  from  one  fair 
form  to  two  fair  forms,  from  fair  forms  to  fair  actions,  from  fair  actions  to  fair  notions." 

The  ornament  of  any  country  or  people  reflects  in  itself  the  characteristics 
of  the  people  and  of  the  land  which  they  inhabited. 

"Thus  in  any  museum  we  can  see  certain  great  differences  in  things;  which  are  so 
evident,  so  much  on  the  surface,  as  almost  to  be  our  first  impressions.  They  are  the 
marks  of  the  places  where  the  works  of  art  were  born.  Climate ;  intensity  of  heat  and 
light ;  the  nature  of  the  earth  ;  whether  there  was  much  or  little  water  in  proportion  to 
land  ;  plants,  animals,  surrounding  beings,  have  helped  to  make  these  differences  ;  as  well 
as  manners,  laws,  religious  and  national  ideas."  —  John  La  Farge. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  of  these  conditions  in  order  to  compre- 
hend the  ornament.  So  a  knowledge  of  the  general  conditions  of  ancient  Egypt 
will  add  greatly  to  the  interest  in  Egyptian  ornament. 

General  History. — Mariette  Bey  says,  "It  was  Egypt  who,  in  the  very 
earliest  times,  appeared  under  the  Pharaohs,  as  the  ancestor  of  all  nations."  ^  The 
beginning  of  history  in  Egypt  dates,  according  to  the  best  records,  five  thousand 
years  before  Christ.  When  Solon,  a  wise  man  of  Greece,  visited  Egypt,  the  Egyptian 
priests  said,  "  O  Solon,  Solon  !  you  Greeks,  you  are  nothing  but  children  !  " 

Mariette  divides  the  general  history  of  Egypt  roughly  into  three  period? ;  — 

1.  The  Heathen  period,  from  about  5000  B.C.  to  381  a.d. 

2.  The  Christian  period,  from  381  a.d.  to  676  a.d. 

3.  The  Mussulman  period,  beginning  676  a.d.  and  now  continuing. 

To  the  Heathen  period  belong  the  great  works  of  Egyptian  art,  —  the  pyramids, 
the  tombs,  the  temples. 

The  Country.  —  Look  at  the  map  of  Africa.  Away  over  at  the  extreme  east 
lies  Egypt.  The  extent  of  this  country  is  not  distinctly  marked  as  it  passes  out  into 
the  Libyan  Desert  on  the  «ne  hand  and  the  Nubian  Desert  on  the  other ;  but  the 
country  of  Egypt  is  practically  limited  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Nile,  ex- 
panding at  the  Delta  so  that  in  shape  it  is  really  like  the  lotus  flower,  with  a  long 
bending  stem.  Its  area  is  12,500  square  miles,  but  very  Httle  greater  than  that  of 
the  state  of  Maryland. 

1  For  the  general  history  of  Egypt,  there  is  nothing  better  than  Outlines  of  Ancient  Egyptian 
Histoty,  by  Auguste  Mariette.  It  was  written  for  the  use  of  the  schools  in  Cairo.  A  translation  has 
been  published  by  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


180  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


* 


Egypt  was  divided  into  two  parts,  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.     These  were  so 

named,  not  from  the  points  of  compass,  but  from  the  direction  in  which  the  river 

runs — Lower  Egypt  embracing  the  region  of  the  Delta  as  far  up  the  river  as  the 

Pyramids,  and  Upper  Egypt  embracing  the  part  farther  up  the  river,  that  is,  farther 

south. 

"  Past  emerald  plains  and  furrowed  mountains  old, 

Whose  violet  gorges  snare  the  wandering  eye, 

The  pillared  palms  day's  dying  embers  hold, 

Like  shafts  of  bronze  against  the  crimson  sky. 

And  every  cloud  mirrors  its  rosy  fold 

In  tremulous  waves  which  blush  and  wander  by  — 

We  float,  and  feel  the  magic  penetrate, 

Till  all  our  soul  is  colored  by  the  hues. 

Making  a  heaven  of  earth,  and,  satiate 

With  splendor,  we  forego  the  use 

Of  speech,  and  reverently  wait 

While  fades  the  glory  with  the  falling  dews, 

And  darkness  seals  for  memory  each  gleam, 

Happy  to  know  it  was  not  all  a  dream."  —  Thomas  Gold  Appleton. 

It  seldom  or  never  rains  in  Egypt  except  in  the  Delta.  But  the  Nile  by  its 
inundation,  fertilizes  the  country  on  either  side.  The  Nile  begins  to  rise  about  the 
middle  of  June,  it  continues  to  rise  for  about  three  months,  and  overflows  its  banks, 
carrying  to  the  fields  the  rich  mud  which  it  has  brought  from  the  mountains.  By 
means  of  canals,  the  water  is  carried  farther  back  into  the  country.  After  the  over- 
flow the  river  gradually  subsides  and  flows  peacefully  between  green  fields  of  cotton 
and  grasses.  The  people  seeing  how  year  after  year  it  fertihzed  the  land,  consid- 
ered it  as  almost  a  god.  An  Egyptian  hymn  is  given  here  in  part.  The  yearly 
inundation  of  the  Nile,  majestic  and  beneficent,  is  the  wealth  of  Egypt. 

"Hail  to  thee,  O  Nile! 
Coming  in  peace,  giving  life  to  Khemi, 
Watering  the  land  unceasingly, 
He  maketh  the  fields  ready  for  the  plough ; 
Every  creature  receiveth  food. 

Shine  forth,  shine  forth,  O  Nile! 
Giving  life  to  man  by  his  oxen. 
Life  to  his  oxen  by  his  meadow  land  — 
Shine  forth,  shine  forth,  O  Nile  !" 

Its  People.  — The  people  of  Egypt  were  particularly  proud  of  the  color  of 
their  skin ;    they  believed  that  it  rendered  them  superior  to  foreigners.     The  men 


DECORATION. 


181 


Map  of  Egypt.      From   Mariette  Bey. 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 


132 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


Pharaoh. 


were  brown,  the  women  a  light  yel- 
low. There  were  two  different  types 
varying  in  form  and  feature.  The  face 
of  the  one  was  refined,  of  the  other 
rather  coarse  and  heavy.  The  first  had 
a  moderately  high  forehead,  aquiline 
nose,  rather  full  lips  and  a  pleasantly 
rounded  chin ;  the  second  had  very 
thick  lips  and  heavy  jaws,  a  short  nose 
and  a  low  forehead.  These  people 
differed  in  their  nature  as  they  did 
in  their  personal  appearance,  the  first 
being  serious  and  dignified,  the  second 
gay  and  pleasure-loving. 

As  a  people  they  cared  very  much 
for  feasts  and  processions  and  for  the 
exhilaration  of  bright  color.  Their 
love  for  ornament  was  shown  in  their 
dress  as  well  as  in  the  decoration  of 
their  temples  and  tombs.  The  illustra- 
tions show  richly  decorated  dresses,  the 
ornament  being  remarkable  for  its  very 
simple  elements. 

They  worshipped  many  gods, 
sometimes  taking  them  in  threes  as 
Osiris,  Isis  and  Horus  or  Amen,  Mut 
and  Chonsu.  There  were  the  sun 
god  Ra  and  the  god  of  truth  Ptah, 
Sechmet  the  lion-headed  goddess  of 
war  and  Pasht,  a  lioness-headed  god- 
dess and  many  others.  Animals  were 
sacred  in  Egypt,  the  gods  being  sup- 
posed to  manifest  themselves  in  the 
forms  of  animals,  as  cows,  cats,  dogs, 
ibises,  hawks,  vultures  and  even  apes. 
These  constantly  appear  in  their  hie- 
roglyphs, in  their  amulets  and  their 
sculpture. 


DECORATION. 


133 


How  they  L,ived.  —  No  phrase  occurs  more  often  in  Egyptian  inscriptions 
than  this  :  io  live  a  happy  day.  Their  country  was  bright  and  sunny,  their  great 
river  was  beneficent  and  from  its  waters  came  the  lotus,  the  beautiful  flower,  a 
symbol  of  life,  immortality  and  the  resurrection.  They  were  a  devout  people  and 
gave  time  to  religious  rites  and  ceremonies,  but  at  the  same  time  sought  for  enjoy- 
ment in  other  ways. 

"Here  were  majestic  temples  reared  of  yore, 
Vast  marble  halls  and  columned  porticos  ; 
Here  maidens  garlanded  tlie  sacred  rose, 
And  throngs  passed  singing  by  the  river  shore, 
Hither  long  barques  pipe-playing  pilgrims  bore." 

—  Clinton  Scollard. 

They  wore  much  rich  ornament.  Women  of  rank  wore  a  skirt  of  rich  stuff 
fastened  at  the  waist,  and  over  their  shoulders  a  loose  robe  tied  at  the  waist. 
Their  head-dresses,  necklets,  bracelets  and  anklets  were  most  elabo- 
rate. The  Egyptian  gentleman  wore  a  garment  with  sleeves  and  a 
kind  of  apron  fastened  with  a  girdle  or  sash.  Royal  apparel  was 
most  gorgeous,  made  of  the  most  beautiful  stuffs  and  the  richest 
ornament.  All  these  things  are  learned  from  the  inscriptions  and 
scenes  engraved  on  the  walls  of  their  tombs  and  temples.  Their 
trades  and  occupations,  their  sports  and  their  ceremonies  are  all 
depicted  there.  An  interior  of  a  tomb  is  shown  on  page  i6  of  the 
drawing-book,  which  will  give  some  idea  of  the  way  in  which  the  walls  were  covered. 
These  picture-stories  are  not  only  wonderful  in  their  delineation  but  are  also  effec- 
tive in  arrangement. 

Their  houses  follow  the  lines  of  the  country  in  which  the  vertical  of  the  palm 
trees  and  the  horizontal  of  the  deserts  prevail.    They  were  quite  simple  in  construc- 

tion,  rarely  more  than  two  stories  high,  and  always  seem  to  include 

LLLLLL        courtyards  and  open  spaces  within  the  walls.    This  gave  opportunity 

for   gardens,  lakes  and   trees.      A  plan 

of  a  simple  Egyptian  house  and  a  side 
elevation  of  a  more  pretentious  house  are  given  here. 
Some  houses  consisted  of  a  court  and  two  or  three 
store-rooms  below  with  a  large  chamber  above.  Their 
door  and  window  openings  were  small  —  they  were 
closed  by  strips  of  matting  or  by  hanging  rugs  —  some- 
times having  wooden  divisions  at  the  lower  part  mak- 
ing a  kind  of  grating.     The  roof  was  flat,  frequently  it  rested  on  pillars  leaving  an 


ILEEEL 


134 


TEACHER'' S  MANUAL. 


open  but  sheltered  place  where  the  inhabitants  could  breathe  the  refreshing  north 
wind  and  enjoy  the  beauties  of  the  garden ;  rugs  could  be  dropped  from  any  side. 

The  house  itself  was  probably  gayly  painted. 

Their  delight  in  beauty  influenced  their  dress,  their 
furniture  and  their  table.  The  great  dining  hall  was  the 
principal  room  in  the  house.  On  the  large  table  were 
placed  fruit  and  bread,  on  smaller  tables  roast  meat  and 
other  articles  of  food.  In  the  homes  of  the  wealthy  beau- 
tiful rugs  were  spread  upon  the  floor.  Table  decoration 
was  especially  studied  and  wreaths  of  flowers  were  as 
necessary  as  food.  The  guests  were  decorated  with 
flowers ;  they  wore  lotus  buds  in  their  hair  and  held 
them  out  to  each  other  to  smell  as  a  fine  courtesy.  Flowers  and  gay  necklets 
were  the  accompaniment  of  all  ceremonious  dining.  The  Egyptians  loved  flowers 
and  trees.  The  books  on  ancient  Egypt  are  full  of  illustrations  of  their  manners 
and  customs.     Their  seats  are  illustrated  below. 


Type  of  the  Hut. —The  first  Egyptian  habitations,  the  first  temples  and 
tombs  were  cut  in  the  rock,  in  the  form  of  grottos.  But  when  the  people  spread 
over  the  plains  and  on  the  fruitful  banks  of  the  Nile,  they  built  huts  in  clay  consoli- 
dated by  the  aid  of  reeds. 

Raised  on  terraces  out  of  the  way  of  inundations,  these  huts  on  a  rectangular 
plan  offered  a  kind  of  skeleton  composed  of  uprights  and  cross  pieces  made  of 
bundles  of  reeds ;  the  sketches  give  an  idea  of  the  manner  of  making  the  construc- 
tion and  putting  the  assemblage  together.  Taken  together  they  constitute  a  frame- 
work determining  the  plans  of  the  exterior  and  interior  walls  of  thick  clay ;  these 
were  built  on  the  inside  of  the  skeleton,  the  members  of  which  were  thus  buried 
in  the  clay. 

Bundles  of  reeds,  projecting  at  the  angles,  were  like  mouldings  to  protect  the 
angles  or  edges ;  others  ran  to  the  upper  edge  and  served  as  a  base  for  a  kind  of 


DECORATION. 


135 


palisade  of  reeds,  planted  in  the  horizontal  mouldings  ;  against  this  flexible  palisade 
they  beat  the  clay  to  the  upper  extremity.    The  reeds  curved  under  the  thrust  of  the 

clay  in  a  way  to  make  the  widened  form,  so  characteristic,  of 

a  g(?rg^,  crowning  the  edifice  on  the  exterior  and  sheltering 

the  exterior  walls  of  the  hut  from  rain.    A  terraced  flat  roof 

of  clay,  supported  by  joined  stringers, 

protected  the  interior.    The  small  door 

was    also    surmounted    by  the    gorge. 

The  same  quadrangular  form  with  walls 

sloping  for  the  sake  of  stability  and 

with    the    same    gorge    and    the    flat 

roof  prevails  in  all  Egyptian  temples, 

as  in  the  illustration  of  the  temple  of  Edfou  on  page  138. 

The  ornamental  finish  at  the  top  and  at  the  angles  of 
temples  shown  above  imitates  the  binding  together  of  reeds  which  protected  the 
clay  hut. 

All  styles  begin  by  being  suited  to  the  chmate  and  to  the  materials  obtain- 
able by  the  people  who  create  it.  And  later  they  maintain  their  traditional  forms. 
Monuments.  — One  great  characteristic  of  the  work  of  this  wonderful  people 
is  its  colossal  size.  Their  belief  in  immortality  led  them  to  attempt  to  create  for 
eternity.  The  conception  and  the  execution  were  stupendous.  Going  up  the  Nile 
river,  the  first  great  monuments  are  the  sphinx  and  the  pyramids.  The  three  great 
pyramids  were  built  by  three  great  kings.  Their  simple  ground  plan  was  a  square  — 
equal  in  strength  and  stability  and  expressing  absolute  mastery. 

The  sides  of  the  three  great  pyramids  of  Gizeh  —  Cheops,  Chephren,  and  Myce- 
rinus  —  face  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the  compass.  Cheops  measures,  approxi- 
mately, seven  hundred  and  fifty  feet  on  each  of  the  four  sides.  It  is  four  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  in  height  and  covers  an  area  of  nearly  thirteen  acres.  Its  estimated 
weight  is  about  seven  million  tons.  Let  one  consider  any  ground-area  of  thirteen 
acres  of  land  with  which  he  is  familiar,  and  in  imagination  pile  upon  it,  in  pyramidal 
order,  blocks  of  stone  with  an  average  thickness  of  three  feet,  until  the  apex  shall 
reach  a  point  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  from  the  foundation,  and  he  will  then  have 
gained  some  idea  of  the  colossal  dimensions  of  this  silent  witness  of  more  than  five 
thousand  years  of  human  life  and  activity. 

The  first  requirement  for  the  active  construction  of  these  pyramids  appears  to 
have  been  the  leveling  of  the  rock  surface.  This  was  probably  followed  by  the 
excavation  of  the  subterranean  chambers  and  the  erection  of  a  small  truncated 
pyramid  in  the  centre  of  the  rock.     If  the  life  of  the  king  were  prolonged  through 


136 


teacher's  manual. 


the  first  stages  of  construction,  he  added  new  outside  layers  of  stone  to  the  surface 
in  the  form  of  great  steps,  following  the  outline  of  the  first  structure.  The  summit 
was  crowned  with  a  pyramidal  stone  and  the  step-like  spaces  on  the  surface  were 
filled  so  as  to  form  a  solid  mass  with  four  sloping  sides.  From  Cairo  a  well-con- 
structed road  shaded  by  fine  lebbek-trees  leads  to  these  pyramids. 


Road  to  the  Pyramids. 

The  Sphinx  has  a  human  head  with  the  body  of  a  lion,  suggestive  of  strength 
and  intelligence.  It  has  looked  out  over  the  sands  of  Egypt,  inscrutable  for  sixty 
centuries.     See  the  illustrations  on  page  137  and  on  page  16  of  the  drawing-book. 

"  Couchant  upon  the  illimitable  sand, 
Like  some  huge  Lybian  lion,  human-faced, 
The  solemn  march  of  centuries  thou  hast  traced 
With  brooding  eyes  that  seem  to  understand 
The  secrets  of  the  ages  —  whose  the  hand 
That  rolls  the  stars  along  the  ethereal  waste, 
And  for  what  purpose  suffering  man  is  placed 
Upon  this  orb,  to  be  or  blessed  or  banned. 


Clinton  Scollard. 


DECORATION. 


137 


**  Come  what  come  may,  or  sun  or  storm,  the  river's  calm  or  the  desert's  bleakness 
And  still  I  couch  in  the  shifting  sands  and  watch  the  vears  alone, 
Holding  within  my  giant  grasp  the  strength  of  art  and  the  sculptor's  weakness, 
The  man  who  died  —  the  thought  that  lived  in  everlasting  stone." 

—  Ernest  McGaffev. 


The  Egyptians  also  erected  obelisks  of  great  height,  each  made  of  one  stone, 
hewn  from  their  wonderful  rocks.  One  of  these  great  obelisks,  was  brought  from 
Egypt  and  erected  in  Central  Park,  New  York,  where  it  now  stands.  Another  stands 
on  the  Thames  embankment  in  London. 


'•  Tliree  thousand  years  it  stood 
Upon  the  sweet,  broAd  Nile, 
And  watched  the  gliding  flood, 
The  blue  skies  smile. 

"  And  many  a  century  more, 

Where  it  of  old  would  stand. 
It  lay  half-covered  o'er 
Bv  the  hot  sand. 


••  Now  with  signs  graven  deep, 
In  this  our  Northern  Isle, 
Where  the  skies  often  weep 
And  seldom  smile, 

"  Once  more  again  it  rears 
Its  dim,  discrowned  head, 
Though  all  those  countless  years 
Its  life  is  dead." 

—  Lewis  Morris. 


138 


teacher'' S  MANUAL, 


Temples. —The  temples  of  the  Egyptians  were  also  remarkable.  Of  mi- 
mense  size,  they  stand  to-day  as  marvels  of  power  and  skill.  The  illustration  below 
shows  the  temple  of  Edfou,  chosen  because  it  is  one  of  the  best  preserved,  although 
not  one  of  the  oldest  or  largest,  of  Egyptian  temples.  It  is  surrounded  by  the  deMs 
of  ancient  cities,—  in  fact  it  was  almost  completely  covered  with  the  accumulations  of 
many  centuries  until  i860,  when  it  was  thoroughly  excavated.  It  is  in  an  almost 
perfect  state  of  preservation,  although  two  thousand  years  have  passed  since  it  was 
reconstructed.  In  all  probability  its  foundation  dates  back  to  a  very  early  period. 
Its  walls  are  covered  with  most  interesting  inscriptions,  from  which  we  learn  that 
restorations  were  commenced  two  hundred  and  thirty-five  years  before  Christ,  and 
finished  one  hundred  years  later. 


Temple  of  Edfou. 


The  temple  is  dedicated  to  the  god  Horus,  —  "  Horus  who  spreads  his  wings; 
the  great  god ;  the  lord  of  heaven,  who,  clad  in  bright  plumage,  comes  forth  out 
of  the  sun-mountain."  When  the  temple  was  consecrated,  an  image  of  the  god 
was  carried  in  solemn  procession  ;  and  extended  accounts  are  given  of  the  elaborate 
festivals  that  were  held  in  honor  of  the  god  at  the  completion  of  the  temple. 
According  to  the  inscriptions,  Horus  is  astonished  at  the  magnificence  of  the  build- 
ings, and  joyfully  expresses  himself  in  words  of  praise. 


As  one  approaches  Edfou  the  pylon  looms  up  above  the  great  mound  of  earth 
at  its  base.  This  pylon,  or  watch-tower,  is  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide  and  one 
hundred  and  fifteen  feet  high.  The  top  may  be  reached  by  a  staircase  of  two 
hundred  and  forty  steps.  From  this  point  is  gained  a  very  good  idea  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  of  the  Nile  and  of  the  villages,  as  well  as  of  the  ground  plan  of 


DECORATION. 


139 


the  building,  which,  including  the  pylon  gateway  with  interior  court,  is  four  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  long  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide. 

Originally  the  Egyptian  temple  probably  consisted  of  the  sanctuary  only,  a 
building  of  four  walls  ;  and  in  the  construction  of  any  Egyptian  temple  the  sanctuary 
was  the  nucleus  or  part  first  built.  In  the  desire  to  produce  a  temple  of  more 
impressive  appearance,  and  to  provide  chambers  necessary  for  the  preservation  of 
relics  used  in  religious  ceremonies,  the  building  was  gradually  extended  outward,  the 
successive  erections  increasing  in  width  and  height  toward  the  great  entrance  or 
pylon  at  the  front,  until  many  pylons  and  walls  divided  the  interior  courts  or  halls 
from  one  another.  Thus  in  the  temple  of  Edfou  we  find  a  huge  pylon  or  watch- 
tower,  then  a  large  forecourt  surrounded  by  a  high  wall  and  colonnade.  Back  of  this 
court  is  a  hypostyle  or  pillared  hall,  the  roof  being  supported  by  eighteen  columns. 
Successive  doorways  give  admission  to  smaller  and  darker  halls,  leading  to  the 
sanctuary  in  which  was  placed  the  image  of  the  god.  The  plan  is  given  in  Book  8, 
page  9  ;  Sixth  Year  Book,  page  25,  showing  the  arrangements  of  the  various  halls. 

The  various  chambers  of  the  temple  are  dimly  lighted  by  slight  openings  in  the 
roof,  and  even  to-day  there  lingers  an  atmosphere  of  mystery  and  awe.  One  steps 
reluctantly  into  this  pagan  temple,  as  if  trespassing  upon  forbidden  ground.  Never- 
theless, one  is  not  content  till  he  has  penetrated  into  its  sanctuary,  within  which  is  to 
be  seen  a  beautiful  shrine  of  granite,  such  as  is  not  often  found  in  Egyptian  temples. 
Owing  to  the  destruction  of  part  of  the  roof,  this  otherwise  perfectly  dark  chamber 
and  its  inscriptions  may  be  easily  studied. 

Upon  the  walls  of  the  temple  are  inscriptions,  drawings,  figures  of  gods  and 
kings  ;  and  when  all  these  decorations  were  brilliant  in  color  and  the  temple  was 
perfect  in  its  construction,  the  sight  must  have  indeed 
stirred  the  soul  of  the  worshipper.  From  the  masts  placed 
in  front  of  the  pylons  floated  pennants,  and  gorgeous  pro- 
cessions moved  slowly  and  impressively  toward  the  great 
temple  on  festive  days,  bearing  standards  of  color,  symbols, 
and  images  of  the  gods. 

All,  however,  were  not  admitted  to  the  sacred  temple. 
Some  were  permitted  to  step  within  the  first  court ;  a  more 
privileged  few  might  pass  within  the  second  hall ;  only  the 
elect  entered  the  third  court ;  and  to  the  "  holy  of  holies  "  only  the  high  priest 
and  the  king,  who, represented  the  god  on  earth,  were  admitted. 

The  greatest  Egyptian  temples  are  at  Thebes.  This  city  lies  north  of  Edfou,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Nile,  in  the  broadest  section  of  its  valley,  and  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  Southern  or  Upper  Egypt.     Its  most  flourishing  period  was  from  about 


140  teacher's  manual. 

1500  to  1000  B.C.  It  was  called  by  Homer  the  "  Hekatompylos,"  or  "hundred 
pyloned  "  city,  in  allusion  to  the  pylons  of  the  numerous  temples. 

"  Royal  Thebes, 
Egyptian  treasure-house  of  countless  wealth. 
Who  boasts  her  hundred  gates,  through  each  of  which, 
With  horse  and  car,  two  hundred  warriors  march." 

Two  of  its  most  important  quarters  were  Karnak  and  Luxor,  both  lying  on  the 
same  side  of  the  river,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  map  on  page  131. 

The  temples  of  Karnak  and  Luxor  were  the  most  magnificent  of  the  Egyptian 
temples.  The  temple  of  Karnak  ranks  among  the  largest  structures  of  the  world. 
It  was  1200  feet  long  by  about  260  feet  wide;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
those  are  the  dimensions  of  the  enclosed  space  ;  there  were  no  buildings  on  a  con- 
siderable part  of  this  area. 

The  propylon  that  stood  before  the  entrance  to  one  of  the  temples  is  illustrated 
on  page  16  of  the  drawing-book. 

"  Its  flag  masts  shine  to  the  sky  adorned  with  electron." 

The  grand  hypostyle  hall,  some  columns  of  which  are  seen  in  the  illustration  on 
the  opposite  page,  was  340  feet  long  by  1 70  feet  wide,  and  with  its  walls  and  pylons 
covered  an  area  of  88,000  square  feet,  a  larger  space  than  is  covered  by  any  of  the 
great  Gothic  cathedrals,  except  those  of  Milan  and  Seville.  If  this  area  is  compared 
with  that  of  some  great  building  which  is  familiar  to  the  pupils,  some  conception 
of  the  magnitude  of  this  wonderful  structure  will  be  gained. 

"  No  language  can  convey  an  idea  of  its  beauty,  and  no  artist  has  yet  been  able  to 
reproduce  its  form  so  as  to  convey  to  those  who  have  not  seen  it  an  idea  of  its  grandeur. 
Tho  mass  of  its  central  piers,  illumined  by  a  flood  of  light  from  the  clerestory,  and  the 
smaller  piers  of  the  wings  gradually  fading  into  obscurity,  are  so  arranged  and  lighted  as  to 
convey  an  idea  of  infinite  space  ;  at  the  same  time  the  beauty  and  massiveness  of  the  forms, 
and  the  brilliancy  of  their  colored  decorations,  all  combine  to  stamp  this  as  the  greatest  of 
man's  architectural  works,  but  such  a  one  as  it  would  be  impossible  to  reproduce, 
except  in  such  a  climate,  and  in  that  individual  style  in  which  and  for  which  it  was 
created."  —  Fergiisson . 

This  pillared  hall  is  the  most  magnificent  single  chamber  ever  built.  It  has 
164  great  stone  columns,  divided  into  three  groups;  twelve  central  ones,  such  as 
are  shown  in  the  illustration,  each  66  feet  high  and  33  feet  in  circumference.  These 
formed  the  main  avenue.  At  either  side  of  the  main  part  of  the  hall  was  an  im- 
mense wing.  In  each  of  these  wings  were  61  columns,  each  42  feet  high  and  27  feet 
in  circumference,  arranged  in  two  rows  of  six,  and  seven  rows  of  seven  each.     The 


DECORATION. 


141 


l!f^' 


Columns  at  Karnak. 


whole  was  roofed  with  huge  blocks  of  stone,  the  light  coming  from  the  upper  part. 
The  walls  and  ceiling  and  pillars  were  covered  with  colored  decoration,  making  a 


most  magnificent  whole. 


142 


teacher's  manual. 


There  were  other  temples  all  about  Karnak,  connected  by  long  avenues 
of  sphinxes,  making  the  grandest  assemblage  ever  produced.  Seti  I.  and  his  son, 
Rameses  II.,  two  of  the  greatest  kings  Egypt  ever  knew,  built  these  magnificent 
temples.  Under  these  kings  Egyptian  architecture  culminated ;  the  temples  of 
Thebes  and  of  Abydos  stand  unsurpassed  for  variety,  beauty,  and  magnificence. 


Vertical  and  Horizontal  Section  of  Rock-cut  Temple  at  Ipsamboul.     Scale  for  vertical  section,  50  ft.  to  i  in.; 

for  horizontal  section,  100  ft.  to  i  in. 

The  great  conceptions  of  the  Egyptians  are  also  manifest  in  their  rock-cut 
tombs  and  temples.  The  illustration,  Plate  X.  shows  part  of  the  facade  of  the 
great  rock-cut  temple  at  Ipsamboul  in  Nubia.  This  temple  extended  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  into  the  rock.  The  vertical  section  and  plan  given  above  show  its 
structure.  Its  fagade  was  adorned  by  hieroglyphs,  by  small  statues,  and  by  four 
colossal  statues,  each  seventy  feet  high,  of  the  king,  Rameses  II.,  who  caused  the 
temple  to  be  made.  The  tremendous  size  of  these  figures  can  be  somewhat 
realized  by  comparing  the  Arab  with  the  statues.  The  calmness,  dignity,  and 
majesty  of  their  attitude  and  expression,  "moulded  in  colossal  calm,"  seem  to  speak 
of  eternal  power  and  wisdom. 

The  ruins  of  temples  on  the  island  of  Philge,  in  the  southernmost  part  of  Egypt 
proper,  are  very  beautiful.  A  row  of  columns  from  Philfe  showing  a  great  variety 
of  fine  capitals  is  given  in  Book  7,  page  16.  On  this  island  there  is  a  small  temple, 
known  as  Pharaoh's  bed. 


aU 

1- 
•< 


DECORATION. 


143 


The  colossi  of  Memnon,  two  seated  figures  more  than  sixty  feet  high,  each  cut 
from  a  single  block  of  sandstone,  are  among  the  most  imposing  of  the  great  works 
of  Thebes.  "  There  they  sit  together,  yet  apart,  in  the  midst  of  the  plain,  serene 
and  vigilant,  still  keeping  their  untired  watch  over  the  lapse  of  ages." 

Picture  Writing. — The  historic  records  of  Egypt  were  kept  by  means  of 
hieroglyphics  or  picture-writing.     Illustrations  of  these  are  given  below. 


HjtK^  .'^ 


0  ■ 

\^\^  .'-i^J"®!  itf;S^P 

^\ii'^,     I  -v)  villi  *    I  .\ 


The  first  illustration  is  from  the  temple  at  Abydos,  and  represents  the  great 
Egyptian  king,  Seti  I.,  in  royal  array,  holding  an  image  emblematic  of  truth,  having 
on  its  head  the  ostrich  feather,  emblem  of  justice  from  its  perfect  symmetry,  and  in 
its  hand  the  looped  cross,  the  symbol  of  divine  life.  Below  is  a  very  beautiful  lotus 
decoration,  and  above  his  head  are  royal  cartouches,  containing  two  of  his  names 
and  other  hieroglyphics.  The  sculpture  of  this  portrait  bas-relief  is  remarkable  for 
its  extreme  delicacy.  It  is  considered  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  Egyptian  art 
The  figure  is  in  very  low  relief,  and  casts  only  a  very  slight  shadow.  The  face  has  a 
refinement  and  purity  that  point  to  the  ideal,  and  recall  the  belief  of  the  Egyptians 
that  portraiture  had  a  magic  influence  on  the  destiny  of  the  soul. 

The  next  illustration  shows  a  relief  and  inscription  from  the  great  temple  at 
Karnak,  and  prisoners  from  Palestine  awaiting  punishment.  The  hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tion, carefully  arranged  with  regard  to  decorative  effect,  is  explanatory  of  the  scene. 


144 


teacher's  manual. 


Royal  Cartouches. — The  royal  cartouches  of  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra  are 
given  on  page  lo  of  the  drawing-book.  The  same  cartouches  appear  at  the  left  and 
right  of  the  ilkistration  below. 

Through  the  discovery  of  the  Rosetta  stone  in  1799  the  signification  of  hiero- 
glyphics became  known  to  the  world.  This  famous  stone  was  turned  up  at  Rosetta, 
in  Egypt,  by  some  French  soldiers  while  digging  an  intrenchment.  There  were 
three  inscriptions  engraved  upon  the  stone  ;  one  in  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  used  by 
the  priests,  one  in  the  characters  used  by  the  common  people,  and  one  a  Greek  trans- 
lation of  the  other  inscriptions.  Even  with  the  aid  of  the  Greek  translation,  it 
was  a  long  time  before  the  Egyptian  characters  could  be  understood,  but  Champol- 
lion  succeeded  in  deciphering  the  inscriptions  in   1822.      He  first  noticed  that 


Ptolemy. 


Use  of  Animal  Forms. 


klZ 


Cleopatra. 


wherever  the  name  of  Ptolemy  occurred  in  the  Greek  inscription,  there  was  in  the 
hieroglyphics  an  oblong  figure  with  rounded  ends  containing  five  signs.  He  called 
this  oblong  figure  a  cartouche,  and  concluded  that  it  stood  for  the  name  of  a  king. 
He  surmised  that  the  five  characters  stood  for  P.  T.  L.  M.  S.,  in  the  -name 
Ptolemaios.  Champollion  knew  of  an  inscription  containing  a  cartouche  that 
should  be  Cleopatra.  In  Ptolemaios  he  had  three  letters  needed  in  Cleopatra,  viz., 
P.  T.  L.  Compare  the  two  cartouches  above  and  discover  the  letters  represented 
by  the  same  characters  in  each.  These  signs  were  sometimes  arranged  in  a  vertical 
line  and  sometimes  side  by  side.  Here  began  the  understanding  of  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphics, and  after  much  patient  study  the  historic  records  on  the  walls  of  temples 
and  tombs  were  read,  and  the  history  of  Egypt,  written  in  stone,  became  known. 


Egyptian  Ornament.  — The  Egyptians  added  to  their  colossal  structures  a 
wealth  of  ornament.  All  ornament  may  be  considered  as  either  symbolic  or 
aesthetic.     The  ornament  of  the  Egyptians  was  symbolic  ;  and  their  ornament  stood 


DECORATION. 


145 


to   them   not   only  as   outward    emblems  of  the   things   represented,   but  also  as 
emblems  of  the  deeper  and  hidden  meaning  of  these  things. 

"  Art  in  Egypt  was  kept  rigidly  within  certain  bounds,  lest  the  majesty  of  the  beauti- 
ful symbols  might  be  clouded  and  the  memory  of  the  awful  mysteries  they  symbolized 
become  dim  in  the  hearts  of  man."  —  VVm.  Morris. 

Petrie  says  that  the  love  of  form  and  of  drawing  was  perhaps  a  greater  force 
with  the  Egyptians  than  with  any  other  people.  Their  decoration  was  profuse, 
it  might  almost  be  said  to  be  universal ;  their  surroundings  furnis^^^d  them  motives. 


The  Lotus,  Natural  and  Conventionalized. 


One  great  decorative  motive  was  the  lotus  flower  which  covered  the  surface  of 
the  Nile.  This  flower,  conventionahzed  in  both  its  front  and  its  top  views,  is  found 
in  almost  all  Egyptian  decoration.  It  appears  several  times  on  page  lo  of  the 
drawing-book,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  borders  below.  For  further  treatment  of  the 
lotus,  see  page  154. 


Their  great  benefactor,  the  Nile,  was  another  great  motive,  appearing  first  in 
the  zigzag,  representing  the  Nile  at  rest,  seen  above  and  on  page  151,  and  later  in 
the  scroll,  representing  the  Nile  in  motion.  The  scroll  appeared  not  only  in  borders 
as  seen  on  pages  153  and  155  of  this  manual,  and  on  page  10  of  the  drawing-book, 
but  also  in  various  modifications  in  surface  coverings,  as  seen  on  pages  151  and  155. 


146 


TEACHER^S  MANUAL. 


9^ 


Among  other  symbolic  ornaments  may  be  mentioned  the  Tau,  or  Sign  of  Life, 
the  feather  of  justice,  the  fan  of  royalty,  and  the  mace  of  power. 

The  use  of  animal  forms  in  amulets  is  illustrated  on 

page  144. 

The  great  divine  motive,  the  winged  globe,  (page 

144)  was  symbolic  of  supreme  power — the  globe  as 
the  sun  or  creation,  the  asp  on  either  side  as  spirit,  intelligence 
and  dominion,  and  the  wings  as  protection.  An  inscription  at 
Edfou  says  that  Thoth  ordered  that  this  emblem  should  be  carved 
over  every  doorway  in  Egypt.     It  does  not  often  occur  to  the  man  who  sings  — 

"  All  my  trust  on  Thee  is  stayed, 
All  my  help  from  Thee  I  bring, 
Cover  my  defenceless  head 
With  the  shadow  of  Thy  wing," 

mat  he  is  borrowing  the  figure  of  his  prayer,  through  the  Hebrew,  from  the  Egyptian 
who  forty  centuries  ago  carved  over  his  doorway  a  pair  of  outspread  wings,  the 
symbols  of  divine  protection. 


A  similar  decoration  was  frequently  found  on  ceilings 
spread  wings,  representing  the  patron  goddess  of  the  south. 


the  vulture  with  out- 


The  vase  illustrated  on  page  147  is  now  in  the  Louvre,  and  is  typical  in  its  form 
of  Egyptian  vases,  frequently  found  covered  with  hieroglyphs  and  with  beautiful 


DECORATION. 


147 


decorations.  It  is  called  an  amphora  on  account  of  its  two  handles,  and  is  also 
called  an  apode  because  it  has  no  foot  or  base.  These  footless  vases  or  apodes  were 
made  to  hold  liquids  or  grains ;  they  were  commonly  thrust  into 
the  ground  for  support.  Egyptian  potters  are  seen  at  work  in  the 
illustration  on  page  146,  taken  from  one  of  the  tombs.  The  whole 
life  of  the  people,  their  occupations,  their  amusements,  their  man- 
ners and  customs,  their  rites  and  ceremonies  are  pictured  on  the 
walls  of  the  tombs  in  a  most  careful  and  lifelike  way. 


Illustrations  in  the  Drawing-book.  —  At  the  left,  below 
the  winged  globe  on  page  10  of  the  drawing-book,  is  the  scara- 
bseus,  or  beetle.  The  scarabaeus,  or  scarab,  was  identified  with 
the  rising  sun,  and  typified  creation,  resurrection  or  new  birth. 
One  signification  is  given  as  evolution.  In  the  tombs  and  ruins 
of  temples  there  are  found  myriads  of  models  of  the  beetles,  that  seem  to  have  been 
worn  as  amulets. 

The  river  Nile  is  symbolized  by  the  wave  scroll   that  appears  in  the  three 
borders.     At  the  right  of  these  borders  is  what  is  known  as  the  key  of  the  Nile  or 

the  Sign  of  Life,  the  looped  cross  on  a  decorative  back- 
ground of  lotuses  ;  while  in  the  palmette  and  in  the  borders 
the  lotus  appears  again,  and  the  rosettes  are  from  the  top 
view  of  the  lotus. 

A  great  deal  of  Egyptian  ornament  was  produced 
by  very  simple  means,  by  horizontal  and  vertical  lines 
with  varying  spaces  and  colors,  as  seen  on  the  mummy 
case.  Flower  petals  were  also  used,  as  is  seen  in  the 
elaborate  collars  and  necklets  worn. 

Egyptian  lamps  were  open  and  filled  with  oil,  in  which 
there  floated  a  wick.  The  one  at  the  right,  on  the 
drawing-book  page,  shows  the  application  of  the  rosette  in 
the  ornament. 

"  Deft  was  the  patient  artisan 
Who  moulded  thee  in  such  a  way 
That  thou  liast  long  outlasted  man, 
Thy  brother,  built  of  frailer  clay." 

—  Clinton  Scollard. 

The  mummy  case  at  the  lower  part  of  the  drawing-book  page  speaks  of  the 
belief  of  the  Egyptians  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  in  its  return  to  the  body 


148 


TEACHER^S  MANUAL. 


after  death.  Because  of  this  behef,  they  took  every  means  to  preserve  the  body, 
embalming  it  with  great  care.  A  scarab  was  fastened  upon  the  breast,  and  then  the 
body  was  swathed  in  numerous  bandages  bearing  inscriptions.  The  mummy  was 
then  complete.  The  wealthier  classes  placed  the  mummy  in  a  wooden  case,  com- 
pletely covered  on  the  top  and  sides  with  painted  ornaments. 

Pillars  and  Capitals. —  Egyptian  pillars  and  capitals  are  most  interesting, 
and  of  great  variety.     There  seem,  however,  to  be  four  general  types — those  which 

apparently  represent  a  palm-tree,  spreading  at  the  top ; 
those  which  represent  stems  or  reeds  bound  together,  or 
a  lotus  bud,  called  a  lotiform  capital ;  those  which  open 
like  a  bell-flower  at  the  top ;  and  those  which  have  the 
head  of  a  divinity  instead  of  a  capital.  The  so-called 
palm  capital  is  illustrated  on  page  lo  of  the  drawing- 
book,  the  lotiform  capital  at  the  left  on  page  149,  and 
the  bell  capital  by  the  capitals  from  Thebes  and  the 
Isle  of  Philse  on  the  same  page.  The  strong,  stiif  stems 
of  the  papyrus  are  supposed  by  many  to  be  the  type  of 
such  Egyptian  shafts  and  capitals.^  The  ornamentation 
is  largely  that  of  the  lotus. 

The  column  illustrated  in  the  drawing-book  is  of 
red  granite,  and  is  seventeen  feet  high.  It  was  taken 
from  a  temple  in  the  city  of  HeracleopoHs.  It  presents  a  beautiful  example  of  a 
palm-leaf  capital.  Upon  i(  aie  graven  the  names  (in  royal  cartouches),  titles,  and 
attributes  of  Rameses  IL,  son  of  Seti  I. ;  and  he  is  represented  as  making  offerings 
to  the  god  Horus.  This  column  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  and  its 
companion  is  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  Exercise.  —  In  order  to  get  the  best  results  from  this  exercise,  something 
of  the  Egyptian  people,  their  history,  and  their  colossal  work,  should  be  presented. 
Egyptian  characteristics  are  found  in  the  familiar  Bible  stories  of  Moses,  of  the  ten 
plagues,  of  Joseph  and  his  coat  of  many  colors.  They  give  some  idea  of  what  Joseph's 
coat  of  many  colors  was  —  perhaps  something  like  a  fine  Oriental  rug.  Most  wonder- 
fully harmonious  color  combinations  are  found  in  Oriental  fabrics. 

The  river  Nile,  its  inundations,  and  its  lotus  flowers,  should  be  brought  up. 
The  ornament  on  page  10  should  be  studied  to  see  how  the  beauty  in  their  surround- 


Capital  from  Phil.'e. 


iWm.  H.  Goodyear  refers  all  these  flower-like  forms  to  the  lotus.    See  his  very  interesting  and 
erudite  book,  T/ie  Grammar  of  the  Lotus, 


DECORATION. 


149 


temple:    near    THEBES. 


TEMPLE  AT   LUXOR 
1250    B.C 


BUD  AND  STEM  OF  THE  PAPYRUS   PLANT  TEMPLE  on  the  ISLE  of  PHILAE, 

106  B.C. 


150  teacher's  manual. 

ings  of  the  Egyptian  people  was  reflected  in  and  recalled  by  the  ornament  in  their 
dress,  in  their  homes,  and  in  their  temples  and  tombs.  Color  was  used  abundantly 
in  brilliant  masses,  not  only  in  the  temples,  but  also  in  the  tombs  and  on  the 
mummy  cases,  which  were  profusely  ornamented. 

Other  examples  of  Egyptian  ornament,  from  the  walls  of  tombs  and  mummy 
cases,  are  given  on  page  151.  The  borders  at  the  upper  left  of  the  page  foreshadow 
the  Greek  fret  just  as  the  lowest  left  hand  border  foreshadows  the  Greek  anthemion, 
the  upper  border  at  the  right  foreshadows  the  Greek  scroll,  and  the  second  border 
at  the  right  the  Greek  egg-and-dart  moulding.  It  will  be  noticed  straight  Hnes  and 
sharp  angles  play  a  large  part  in  Egyptian  ornament. 

A  choice  should  be  given  to  the  pupils  as  to  what  example  of  ornament  they 
will  draw.  It  will  be  interesting  for  them  to  compare  the  three  borders  on  the  draw- 
ing-book page,  and  see  how  they  vary  as  to  the  way  in  which  the  space  is  used  — 
the  first  having  simply  the  scroll  and  the  background  varying  in  color ;  the  second 
having  the  background  partly  filled  between  the  scrolls  with  the  lotus,  and  the  third 
varying  from  the  others  very  much  as  to  the  general  character  of  the  scroll  and  of 
the  ornament.  They  are  all  to  be  studied  especially  for  their  space  relations.  The 
Egyptians  drew  with  very  great  care  and  precision  without  being  mechanical.  It 
will  be  very  interesting  to  suggest  to  the  pupils  that  they  take  the  simple  elements 
of  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  and  work  out  an  original  border  after  the  style  of  the 
Egyptians. 

The  examples  may  be  drawn  with  the  pencil  or  the  brush ;  color  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  pencil  painting,  by  ink,  by  water-color,  or  by  colored  paper. 

For  work  in  the  study  of  color  and  for  the  use  of  colored  paper  for  this 
year,  see  Study  of  Color,  page  95,  and  also  The  Prang  Examples  of  Historic 
Ornament  in  color.^ 

As  some  may  wish  to  work  out  this  exercise  in  color,  an  account  of  the  colors 
used  by  the  Egyptians  is  given.  The  palette  of  the  Egyptian  artist  contained  seven 
depressions  in  the  form  of  royal  cartouches,  for  seven  colors,  to  be  arranged  in  the 
following  order  :  white,  yellow,  green,  blue,  red,  dark  brown,  black.  There  were  two 
kinds  of  yellow,  —  a  bright  yellow  and  the  dull  yellow  of  yellow  ochre  (one  authority 
gives  five  kinds  of  yellow)  ;  there  were  three  kinds  of  blue, — an  azure  blue,  a 
greenish  blue,  and  a  dark  blue  ;  the  reds  were  made  of  burnt  ochre.  Egyptian 
ornament  seems  to  have  inclined  more  to  yellow  than  to  any  other  color.     Green 

1  The  Prang  "Examples  of  Historic  Ornament."  Prepared  in  color  by  Mrs.  Hannah  Johnson 
Carter.  The  plates  are  6"x  9".  There  are  now  ready  Egyptian,  Greek,  Roman,  Byzantine,  Romanesque, 
Saracenic  and  Gothic  plates.     Published  by  the  Prang  Educational  Company, 


DECORATION. 


151 


JTH^J 


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JTWYWWWT^WWYyTffYYYWYYWYyYfW?^ 


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c^<'  <<  << «  «  « << «  «  « <• 


k< «  «  «  «  «  «  «  «  « < 


DO ooooooooo 


DOOOOOOOOOi 


From  Walls  of  Tombs  and  Mummy  Cases. 
A  Page  of  Egyptian  Ornament. 


152  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

was  used  less  than  red,  yellow,  and  blue.  They  had  also  the  grays,  except  violet 
gray.  Blue  blue  green,  and  dark  blue  blue  green  seem  to  be  nearer  the  Egyptian 
and  Oriental  blue  than  does  a  normal  blue.  Dark  red  red  orange  is  a  good  Oriental 
red.  Colors  are  much  affected  by  their  juxtaposition  and  no  people  made  more 
use  of  this  fact,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  than  the  Orientals.  In  their  most 
brilliant  fabrics  very  little  intense  color  was  used. 

The  scarab  as  given  on  page  lo  may  be  effectively  carried  out  in  colored  paper 
or  in  water-color.  The  wings  may  be  dull  green,  the  circles  red  orange  or  a  yellow 
red,  and  the  body,  legs,  and  bands  on  the  wings  black.  The  black  can  be  obtained 
by  mixing  red,  yellow,  and  blue  with  the  greater  amount  of  blue.  Use  the  paint  quite 
thick  and  mix  directly  on  the  cakes.  Yellow  green  paper  (D)  can  be  used  with  red 
orange  for  the  circles,  and  ink  for  the  black  painting  upon  the  yellow  green  paper. 

Books  that  may  be  Studied.  —  The  whole  subject  of  ancient  Egypt  is  so 
interesting,  that  some  may  wish  to  study  it  further.  For  those  a  few  additional 
books  are  mentioned  here. 

Egypt ia7i  ArchcBology .     G.  Maspero. 

Maimers  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.     Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson. 
Egypt  uiide?-  the  Pharaohs.     Emil  Brugsch. 
Egypt,  Descriptive,  Historical,  and  Pictiiresque.     G.  M.  Ebers. 
The  Story  of  Ancient  Egypt.     George  Rawlinson. 
The  Art  of  Egypt.     G.  Perrot  and  C.  Chipiez. 
Pharaohs  aiid  Fellahs.      Amelia  B.  Edwards. 
Lower  Egypt.     Handbook  for  Travellers.     K.  Baedeker. 
Upper  Egypt.     Handbook  for  Travellers.     K.  Baedeker. 
The  Age  of  Fable.     Thomas  Bulfinch.     Edited  by  Edward  Everett  Hale. 
Life  in  Ancient  Egypt.     Adolf  Erman. 

Egypt,  the  Land  of  the  Temple  Builders.     Walter  Scott  Perry. 

Notes  on  the  Egyptian  Style,  to  accompany  The  Prang  Examples  of  Historic  Orna- 
ment. 

The  novels  of  Ebers  give  most  careful  studies  of  Egyptian  Hfe.  Among  the 
magnificent  folios  illustrating  Egypt,  there  may  be  mentioned  those  issued  by  order 
of  Napoleon  I.  in  twenty-three  volumes,  as  well  as  those  of  Rosellini,  Lepsius, 
Champollion,  and  Prisse  d'Avennes. 

Language  Lessons. — The  pages  devoted  to  the  Egyptian  style  in  the  draw- 
ing-book give  abundant  material  for  written  exercises  illustrated  by  the  pupils,  either  by 
drawings  or  by  selecting  examples  ^  from  illustrated  papers  and  magazines.     Such 

1  The  Prang  Educational  Company  publish  fine  half-tones,  called  "  Note  Book  Illustrations,"  that  are 
suited  for  such  exercises  on  Egypt. 


DECORATION. 


153 


exercises  lead  pupils  to  research,  at  once  stimulating  and  beneficial.     The  following 
list  gives  additional  books  for  pupils  :  — 

Family  Flights:  Over  Egypt.     Edward  Everett  Hale  and  Susan  Hale. 
Zigzag  Journeys :  In  the  Levant.     Hezekiah  Butterworth, 
Herodotus  for  Boys  and  Girls.     J,  S.  White. 
Boy  Travellers  in  Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land.     T.  W.  Knox. 
Biography  of  Livitigstone.     James  Ellis. 


9    0^         -i 


Kkom  an  Egyptian  Tomb. 


154 


teacher's  manual. 


BOOK  7,  PAGE  12. 


DECORATION. 


SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  12. 


Examples. —  Historic  Ornament.     Egyptian.     Space  Relations. 
Art.  —  Selection.     Rendering.     Expression  by  Color. 

[The  pupil  studies  the  units  on  the  dra-wing-book  page,  and  the  ap- 
plication of  these  and  similar  units  in  the  borders  and  examples 
of  surface  covering,  sketches  the  units,  chooses  one  for  repro- 
duction, and  dra^ws  it  in  the  book,  planning  carefully  for  the 
enlargement  and  seeking  to  retain  the  beauty  of  line  and  space 
relations  sho-wn  in  the  examples  ;  expressing  color,  if  desired,  by 
pencil  painting,  brush  -work,  or  colored  paper;  at  the  same  time 
considering  the  production  of  beautiful  units  typical  of  our 
present  life  as  these  units  were  typical  of  the  life  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians.] 

The  Lotus.  — The  ancient  Egyptians  loved  flowers  and  used  them  on  all  occa- 
sions. They  cultivated  them  in  their  gardens,  they  carried  and  wore  them,  they 
used  them  in  their  religious  ceremonies  and  immortalized  them  in  their  decorations. 


They  trained  and  cared  for  trees  also  with  great  assiduity.     The  illustrations  above 
show  trees  represented  in  a  symmetric  way  in  their  wall  decorations. 

But  preeminent  among  all  decorative  motives  from  plant  life,  was  the  lotus 
flower.  There  were  two  varieties,  indigenous  to  Egypt  —  the  blue  and  the  white. 
There  is  a  little  difference  between  the  two  flowers,  a  difference  which  appears  as 


well  in  their  decorative  treatment.  Notice  especially  the  two  lower  borders  on 
page  12  of  the  drawing-book  as  well  as  the  illustration  above.  The  calyx  of  the 
white  lotus  is  formed  of  four  long  elliptical  sepals,  green  below,  rose  color  on  the 
edges,  and  strongly  marked  ;    the   petals  are  white  and  rounded  like   the  sepals. 


DECOliATION. 


155 


Fig.  I. 


Fig. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9. 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  II. 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


Fig.  15. 


A  Page  of  Egyptian  Ornament. 


156 


teacher's  manual. 


The  calyx  of  the  blue  lotus  has  fotir  sepals  which  are  lanceolate  and  powdered  with 
brown  ;  its  petals  are  also  lanceolate  and  a  pale  blue. 

The  sepals  of  both  flowers  are  dark  green,  showing  very  distinctly  on  account  of 
the  contrast  in  color,  and  are  given  especial  prominence  in  the  flower  in  ornament. 

The  drawing  and  modeling  of  this  symboUc  ornament  are  often  marvellous.  The 
sacred  lotus  flower  appears  in  every  conceivable  form  of  outline.  It  is  represented 
in  the  bud,  as  the  partly  open  flower,  and  as  the  full  blossom  upon  the  stalk.  It  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  kings ;  it  forms  a  design  about  the  shaft  of  columns,  a  bor- 
der around  the  tomb  chamber,  or  the  decoration  on  a  throne  chair.  In  two  differ- 
ent forms  it  symbolizes  Upper  and  Lower 
Egypt.  It  decorates  the  capitals  of  columns, 
appearing  as  the  bud  and  as  the  open  flower. 
It  is  employed  in  gold  ornaments,  and  is 
worn  upon  the  body  as  an  amulet.  It  is 
found  upon  mummy  cases.  Everywhere  its 
sacred  significance  is  apparent.  It  is  the 
flower  of  the  resurrection,  the  pure  lily  of 
the  Nile,  growing  from  its  sacred  waters,  — 
the  harbinger  of  coming  plenty.  The  lotus 
symbol,  appearing  in  thousands  of  drawings 
and  in  relief  and  color  ornaments  throughout 
E^gypt,  is  often  very  beautifully  executed,  and 
illustrates  the  marvellous  power  of  the  Egyp- 
tians over  line,  a  wonderful  knowledge  of 
proportion  in  design,  and  an  exquisite  sense 
of,  conventionalization.  Most  interesting 
drawings  have  been  found,  showing  the 
gradual  development  of  the  lotus  form  from 
natural  to  conventional  types ;  also  the  com- 
bination of  the  top  view  or  rosette  with  the 
side  view  of  the  flower,  producing  what  ulti- 
mately became  the  anthemion  of  Hellenic 
decoration.  It  is  evident  that  the  Greeks 
obtained  their  first  conception  of  the  anthemion  from  the  Egyptians. 

Illustrations  on  the  Drawing-book  Page.  —  Some  special  examples  are 
now  gven  for  this  exercise  in  the  drawing-book,  leading  to  the  development  of 
Greek  ornament.  The  two  smaller  figures  show  what  Goodyear  calls  the  lotus 
trefoil.     Comparing  these  two  examples  with  the  lower  border  at   the  right,  the 


DECORATION. 


157 


tendency  in  the  lotus  trefoils  to  greater  curvature,  less  angularity,  and  more  decora- 
tive effect  is  plainly  seen.  This  tendency  develops  in  the  larger  figure  into  the 
decorative  base  on  which  the  lotus  flower  rests,  and  thus  the  lotus  volute  grew.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  examples  are  not  absolutely  symmetric.  Egyptian  ornament 
did  not  possess  mechanical  symmetry,  but  its  bilateral  figures  are  balanced  so  that 
the  effect  of  symmetry  is  given.  Notice  that  in  nearly  all  the  examples  the  top 
view,  as  well  as  the  front  view  of  the  flower  appears.  They  seem  to  have  wished 
that  none  of  the  beauty  of  the  flower  should  be  lost. 

The  Exercise. — The  pupils  are  to  draw  the  large  unit  enlarged  in  the 
space  at  the  right,  placing  it  well,  and  making  it  of  suitable  size  for  the  space. 

Spirit  of  the  Lesson.  —  It  is  hoped  that  the  teacher  may  be  able  to  make 
the  lesson  so  interesting,  and  the  example  so  full  of  meaning,  that  the  drawing  will 
not  be  a  mere  copying  of  a  decorative  figure,  but  rather  a  sympathetic  and  intelli- 
gent exercise,  entering  into  the  symmetry,  proportion,  and  curvature  characteristic 
of  the  style.  The  large  example  has  a  slender  elegance  in  its  proportion,  fine  curves 
and  a  careful  observation  of  the  laws  of  growth,  the  radiating  petals  all  proceeding 
from  within  the  calyx. 

And  it  is  hoped  also  that  the  pupils  may  feel  that  the  lotus  in  these  various 
decorative  forms  was  thoroughly  a  part  of  Egyptian  people  and  their  life.  Lead 
them  to  think  how  they  might  study  our  own  flowers  and  obtain  from  them  graceful 
and  beautiful  units  that  might  stand  as  typical  in  some  way  of  the  life  of  the  Amer- 
ican people. 


158  TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 

BOOK  7,  PAGE  13.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  13, 

DECORATION. 

Examples.  —  Historic  Ornament.     Greek.     Space  Relations. 
Art.  —  Selection.     Rendering.     Expression  by  Color. 

[The  pupil  studies  the  examples  on  the  drawing--book  page,  sketches 
one  or  more,  chooses  one,  and  reproduces  it  enlarged  in  the 
book,  studying  to  express  the  beauty  of  line  and  of  space  rela^ 
tions,  using  pencil,  brush  and  ink,  or  colored  paper  ;  and  con- 
siders also  how  the  principles  of  beauty  shown  in  the  Anthemion 
might  be  show^n  in  an  ornament  for  the  present  century.] 

The  Greek  Style.  — Entering  now  on  a  style  of  ornament  belonging  to  a 
people  and  a  country  very  different  from  that  of  Europe,  it  is  extremely  interesting 
to  see  how  Egyptian  influence  may  be  traced  in  Greek  ornament.  As  this  exercise 
is  in  direct  sequence  with  the  preceding  exercise  on  an  Egyptian  unit,  thought  will 
be  directed  here  to  that  sequence.  The  characteristics  of  Greece  as  a  country  and 
of  the  Greek  people  are  treated  in  this  manual  on  page  184,  where  succeeding 
exercises  are  taken  up. 

Anthemion.  —  The  anthemion  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  of  Greek 
forms.  It  exemplifies  most  perfectly  the  beauty  of  radiation,  of  tangential  union, 
of  proportional  distribution  of  spaces  or  areas,  —  three  great  laws  of  design. 
Note    in    the    anthemion.    Fig.    4,    the    proportional    distribution   of   spaces,    the 


Fig.  I.  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3.  Fig.  4. 

central  lobe  being  the  largest,  the  other  lobes  decreasing  symmetrically  on  each 
side.  The  whole  figure  is  made  compact  by  the  enclosing  lines,  the^ends  of 
which  form  spirals  or  volutes,  which  harmonize  with  the  lobes. 

It  is  a  joy  to  study  the  transition  from  the  uprightness  of  the  central  lobe 
through  greater  and  greater  curvature  of  the  other  lobes  to  the  scrolls  at  the 
base,  and  to  see  how  the  mediation  between  erectness  and  full  graceful  curvature 
has  been  achieved,  and  how  there  has  been  thus  produced  one  harmonious  whole 
through  strength  and  grace. 


BECOBATION. 


159 


By  study  of  the  Egyptian  palmettes,  it  will  be  seen  that,  while  the  Egyptians 
approached  this  beauty,  yet  they  did  not  reach  the  perfect  harmony  of  the  Greeks. 
Figures  i,  2,  and  3  are  Egyptian  examples  previously  presented.  The  Egyptian 
palmettes  seem  to  show  rather  a  combination  of  two  parts,  the  palmette  itself,  so  to 
speak,  and  the  scrolls  or  volutes,  rather  than  that  unapproachable  sense  of  one 
whole  given  by  the  Greek  anthemion. 

One  of  the  secrets  of  the  tending  of  each  lobe  to  the  others  in  such  perfect 
grace  is  the  underlying  tangential  union.  A  skeleton  of  this  figure  shows  that  if 
the  axis  of  each  lobe  is  extended  downward,  all  unite  tangentially  within  their  stem ; 
so  that  there  is  not  only  an  external  union,  a  union  of  seeming,  but  an  interior  or 
real  union,  a  union  of  being.  Figures  i  and  2  show  the  leading  lines  of  two  variants 
of  the  anthemion,  and  illustrate  the  beautiful  tangential  union  and  radiation  in  the 
figure.  And  finally,  in  the  anthemion,  the  scrolls  flow  out  and  around  in  perfect 
continuance,  meeting  at  the  top  in  such  a  way  as  to  gently  emphasize  the  aspiration 
and  up-springing  of  the  central  lobe.  Many  lessons  of  the  beauty  of  grace  and 
harmony  in  conduct  as  well  as  in  form  may  be  drawn  from  the  anthemion. 


Fig.  I. 


Fig.  2. 


Relation  to  Nature.  —  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  motive  of  this 
Greek  ornament  was  from  the  honeysuckle.  That  theory  has  been  given  up.  But  it 
is  recognized  that  it  embodies  most  wonderfiilly  the  laws  of  beauty  which  underlie  all 
plant  growth.  Compare  the  illustration  of  the  leading  lines  of  the  anthemion,  with 
the  drawings  given  by  Ruskin  in  his  "  Elements  of  Drawing,"  and  reproduced  below 
as  typical  of  tree  structure.     He  says  :  — 

"  Now,  remember,  notliing  distinguishes  great  men  from  inferior  men  more  than  their 
always,  whether  in  life  or  in  art,  kiioimm:^  tlie  way  tilings  are  going.  Your  dunce  thinks 
they  are  standing  still,  and  draws  them  all  fixed ;  your  wise  man  sees  the  change  or  chang- 
ing in  them,  and  draws  them  so,  —  the  animal  in  its  motion,  the  tree  in  its  growth,  the 


160  TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 

cloud  in  its  course,  the  mountain  in  its  wearing  away.  Try  always,  whenever  you  look  at 
a  form,  to  see  the  lines  in  it  which  have  had  power  over  its  past  fate,  and  will  have  power 
over  its  futurity.  .   .  . 

"So  in  trees  and  general  bushes,  large  or  small,  you  will  notice  that,  though  the 
bouo'hs  spring  irregularly  and  at  various  angles,  there  is  a  tendency  in  all  to  stoop  less  and 
less  as  they  near  the  top  of  the  tree.  This  structure,  typified  in  the  simplest  possible 
terms  at  c,  is  common  to  all  trees  that  I  know  of,  and  it  gives  them  a  certain  plumy  char- 
acter and  aspect  of  unity  in  the  hearts  of  their  branches  which  are  essential  to  their 


y^ 


beauty.  The  stem  does  not  merely  send  off  a  wild  branch  here  and  there  to  take  its  own 
way,  but  all  the  branches  share  in  one  great  fountain-like  impulse ;  each  has  a  curve  or  a 
path  to  take  which  fills  a  definite  place,  and  each  terminates  all  its  minor  branches  at  its 
outer  extremity,  so  as  to  form  a  great  outer  curve,  whose  character  and  proportion  are 
peculiar  for  each  species ;  that  is  to  say,  the  general  type  or  idea  of  a  tree  is  not  as  at  a, 
but  as  at  b,  in  which,  observe,  the  boughs  all  carry  their  minor  divisions  right  out  to  the 
bounding  curve." 


'to 


The  anthemion  seems  to  be  a  remarkable  illustration  of  that  of  which  Goethe 
spoke  when  he  said,  "  The  beautiful  is  a  manifestation  of  secret  laws  of  nature 
which,  but  for  this  appearance,  had  been  forever  concealed  from  us." 

Relation  to  Egyptian  Ornament. — The  two  pages  in  the  drawing-book, 
pages  12  and  13,  give  an  admirable  opportunity  for  a  comparative  study  of  charac- 
teristics of  Egyptian  and  Greek  ornaments.  Notice  on  the  one  hand  the  devotion 
to  symbolism,  the  lotus,  the  scarab,  the  feather,  the  double  scroll, — on  the  other 
hand  the  forgetfulness  of  all  symboHsm,  the  search  for  pure  beauty,  its  production 
being  always  governed  by  a  recognition  of  its  laws.  But  we  can  trace  the  develop- 
ment of  the  anthemion  from  the  simple  three-lobed  unit  of  the  Egyptians  on  page 
12  of  the  drawing-book  to  the  Greek  anthemion  so  perfect  in  its  harmony.  The 
illustrations  on  page  13  of  the  drawing-book  show  how  the  Greeks  treated  the 
anthemion.  Having  made  its  principles  their  own,  they  varied  its  proportions  and 
the  number  of  its  parts  at  will,  as  the  Egyptians  also  did  with  the  lotus.  While  the 
Egyptian  ornament  is  elegant  in  its  drawing  and  its  arrangement,  Greek  ornament 
shows  greater  and  more  subtile  thought  and  appreciation  of  pure  beauty. 


DECORATION. 


161 


Suggestions  to  the  Teacher.  —  Greek  ornament  was  largely  the  work  of 
the  brush,  and  if  school  conditions  allow  it,  it  will  be  well  to  have  pupils  select  some 
example,  or  part  of  an  example,  to  work  it  out  with  the  brush.  The  remarkable 
beauties  of  the  anthemion  can  in  no  way  be  so  well  felt  as  through  its  reproduction. 
The  purpose  is  not  to  secure  a  reproduction  of  some  particular  example,  but  to 
lead  the  pupil  through  study  and  drawing  to  a  feeling  for  the  principles  of  beauty 
which  enter  into  it.  Not  only  freedom  but  also  a  strong  feeling  for  the  beauty 
sought  is  essential  for  the  work.  A  good  preliminary  practice  for  the  brush  is  to 
select  some  simple  element  and  produce  it  many  times  with  the  brush  until  facility 
is  obtained. 

The  anthemion  also  gives  opportunity  for  good,  wholesome  drawing  with  the 
pencil.  Its  gradations  in  curvature  and  proportion  are  so  wonderful  that  no  figure 
affords  a  better  opportunity  for  well-thought  execution.  If  the  anthemion  is  worked 
out  in  colored  paper,  the  colors  used  should  be,  as  a  general  thing,  in  the  grays, 
preferably  the  red,  orange,  and  yellow  grays  (assortment  F)  for  Greek  ornament, 
as  more  nearly  approaching  the  color  of  the  burnt  clays.  The  green,  blue,  and 
violet  grays   (assortment  FF)  will  not,  however,  be  inappropriate. 


162  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

BOOK  7,  PAGE  14.  SIXTH   YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  14. 

SPACE    RELATIONS. 

Examples. —  Mouldings.     Door  Casings  and  Window  Frames. 

Art.  —  Selection  of  Historic  and   Modern   Examples.     Appreciation. 
Original  Composition. 

[Lead  the  pupils  to  make  sketches  of  the  moulding's  in  the  casings 
to  doors  and  -windo-ws  in  the  schoolroom  and  elsewhere,  to  study 
the  examples  on  the  dra'wing-boo'k  page,  to  plan  for  a  simple  de- 
sign of  their  own,  showing  beauty  in  the  spacing  of  the  mould- 
ings, and  to  draw  the  design  in  the  books.] 

The  Examples. — The  doorway  from  the  Erechtheion,  illustrated  on  the 
drawing-book  page,  is  perhaps  the  most  celebrated  doorway  in  the  world.  The 
Germans  call  it  "  the  doorway  of  magnificence."  It  is  represented  in  four  ways  — 
the  two  upper  illustrations  being  pictorial,  while  the  two  lower  are  constructive. 
The  first  illustration  shows  the  doorway  at  an  angle,  giving  an  idea  of  its  appear- 
ance from  the  side.  The  second  illustration  gives  the  appearance  of  the  whole 
doorway  from  the  front,  showing  the  crack  in  the  capstones  and  the  wooden  frame 
that  has  been  placed  within  the  doorway  to-  prevent  these  stones  from  falling.  The 
relations  of  the  various  mouldings  to  each  other  can  be  seen  in  the  third  drawing, 
while  the  proportion  of  the  whole  can  be  seen  in  the  fourth. 

Preparation  for  the  Lesson. — Study  the  examples  on  the  drawing-book 
page.  Lead  the  pupils  to  discover  that  the  illustrations  are  of  the  same  doorway. 
They  may  be  able  to  find  out  for  themselves  that  the  style  is  Greek,  from  the  rosette 
and  other  detail  they  may  have  studied  or  drawn  previously. 

Why  is  this  doorway  beautiful  ?  The  pupils  may  answer  because  of  its  ornamen- 
tation. Lead  them  to  observe  the  perfect  construction,  the  refinement,  the  repose  — 
the  suitability  and  the  true  significance  of  the  ornament,  to  see  also  the  beautiful 
spacing  and  distribution  of  the  ornament.  Call  special  attention  to  the  beautiful 
spacing  of  the  rosettes.  They  are  seemingly  quite  a  distance  apart,  and  /et  there  are 
enough.  The  uncovered  space  seems  balanced  by  the  rich  mouldings  above.  Note 
the  difference  in  width  of  the  uncovered  spaces,  —  about  the  door  the  varying 
width  of  the  mouldings.  These  varying  widths  add  beauty  and  prevent  monotony. 
Lead  them  to  observe  that  while  the  ornamented  mouldings  give  richness  and  weight, 
the  undecorated  spaces  give  lightness  and  grace.  Tell  them  that  this  doorway  is 
from  the  Erechtheion,  a  very  beautiful  marble  temple  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  that 


PLATE    XI. 


70^^^ 


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T jrr  jit  JiTJff- 


li^MM^J!UiU!U 


From  the  Doorway  of  the  Erechtheion. 


SPACE  RELATIONS. 


163 


contained  something  very  sacred  and  precious  to  the  Greeks,  and  therefore  a  great 
deal  of  thought  was  put  into  every  part  to  make  it  beautiful.  See  page  196  for 
a  description  of  the  Erechtheion.  A  porch  of  this  temple  is  illustrated  in  Book  8, 
page  16  ;  Sixth  Year  Book,  page  32.  This  doorway,  as  illustrated  in  the  drawing- 
book,  might  serve  in  any  art  course  as  an  illustration  of  balance,  perfect  construc- 
tion, refinement  in  representation,  and  true  significance  in  decoration. 


The  doorway  is  always  an  important  feature  in  a  public  building,  and  gives  the 
characteristics  of  the  architecture  with  which  it  is  used.  Ask  the  pupils  to  mention 
any  beautiful  buildings  they  may  have  seen,  and  to  recall  anything  they  can  of  the 
doorways. 

Let  them  look  for  mouldings  like  any  part  of  the  Erechtheion  doorway  —  they 
may  find  a  moulding  like  the  upper  part,  perhaps  without  the  ornament  or  some 
other  part.  A  full-page  plate  of  this  doorway  is  given  here  that  the  relations  of  the 
parts  to  each  other  and  their  varying  widths,  through  which  monotony  is  avoided, 
may  be  studied. 

There  are  many  other  very  beautiful  doorways.  There  is  one  on  the  third  floor 
of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  in  Florence,  illustrated  here,  that  is  celebrated  for  its  beauty. 

Give  opportunity  for  the  study  of  door 
mouldings,  window  frames,  and  picture  frames 
in  the  schoolroom  and  school  building.  Lead 
the  pupils  to  tell  you  that  the  doorway  for  the 
entrance  to  the  schoolhouse  should  be  more 
important  than  the  doorway  for  the  school- 
room :  that  the  door  of  a  church  should  differ 
from  the  door  of  a  library.  Ask  them  to  design 
a  simple  doorway  for  a  room,  or  for  the  en- 
trance to  an  ordinary  house. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  see  the  purpose  of  a 
moulding  or  frame  about  a  door  or  window. 
It  is  a  mechanical  necessity  ;  it  gives  strength. 
To  break  the  surface  of  these  frames  into  well- 
planned  spaces  adds  the  element  of  beauty. 
If  the  door  is  very  large  a  wider  moulding  is 
required  and  there  is  more  opportunity  for 
ornament.  In  the  small  doors  for  entrance  to  the  rooms  in  a  house  there  is  little 
opportunity  for  decoration  —  except  in  the  way  of  straight  lines  or  possibly  a  simple 
rosette  in  the  corner. 


164 


TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 


The  illustration  below  of  two  Greek  doors  taken  from  vase  paintings  shows 
some  of  their  ideas  of  division.  In  these  we  see  the  threshold,  lintel  and  side  posts 
with  iron  bands  riveted  to  the  wood  of  the  doors  and  on  one  of  them  there  are  rings 
to  serve  as  handles  and  keyholes  by  which  the  latch  was  shoved  backward  and  for- 
ward. 


O    O   O    0    o   o 

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The  Exercise.  —  Make  sketches  on  practice  paper  of  the  example  in  the 
book,  without  the  ornament  in  this  case,  giving  special  study  to  the  spacing  of 
the  mouldings. 

Make  sketches  on  practice  paper  of  a  design  for  a  doorway  or  window  frame, 
showing  only  a  corner,  as  in  the  lower  illustration  in  the  drawing-book.  This  may 
be  treated  without  ornament,  except  in  the  variation  of  the  width  of  the  spaces. 
Groups  of  lines  near  together  will  balance  the  plain  spaces.  Give  careful  thought 
to  the  placing  of  the  design  upon  the  drawing-book  page. 

Added  Interest. — The  study  of  spacing  by  the  Egyptians  was  quite  remarka- 
ble, as  shown  by  the  illustration  below  from  a  sarcophagus. 


imPi!:i'S!!i!l!l'niiCEfil'fl'l'tliiH11»l-l'l:l1-!il'ili;i:fl'il^ 


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ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES. 


165 


BOOK  7,  PAGE  15.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  15. 

ILLUSTRATIVE   PAGES. 

Flower  Composition.  —  Arthur  W.  Dow. 

Illustrations. — The  examples  show  beauty  of  space  relations,  as  seen  in 
flower  compositions  by  Mr.  Dow.  See  pages  48-50.  They  show  beauty  of 
space  relations  by  contrast  of  vertical  and  oblique  lines,  as  well  as  by  contrast  of 
large  and  small  spaces,  and  through  grouping  and  repetition.  In  many  of  these 
compositions  where  but  two  flowers  are  used,  one  flower  echoes  the  other  with  a 
lighter  touch,  as  if  rhythm  were  intended.  The  arrangements  from  the  Japanese 
are  very  suggestive,'  but  with  a  very  different  feeling  from  those  of  Mr.  Dow. 

Arthur  W.  Dow,  born  at  Ipswich,  received  a  prolonged  classical  education, 
studying  Greek  and  Latin  and  Hebrew,  besides  several  modern  languages.  At  the 
same  time  he  did  not  overlook  the  attractions  of  nature,  and  sketched  from  the 
beautiful  landscapes  about  him.  He  determined  to  become  a  painter,  and  studied 
abroad  for  five  years. 

In  1889  he  returned  to  America,  and  has  been  steadily  winning  recognition  as 
a  landscape  painter.  He  is  especially  a  student  of  composition.  He  believes  that 
while  nature  suggests,  art  creates,  and  that  the  creative  faculty  far  surpasses  the 
imitative.  He  has  for  years  been  working  upon  the  principles  of  composition,  and 
exemplifying  them  through  his  own  works  and  those  of  his  pupils.  He  has  recently 
published  a  book  called  "  Composition." 

Some  of  his  compositions  in  black  and  white  are  given  below,  showing  the 
different  effects  obtainable  in  different  subjects,  by  the  different  distribution  of  the 
black  and  white. 


166 


TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 


BOOK  7,  PAGE  i6. 


SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  i6. 


ILLUSTRATIVE   PAGES. 

Egyptian  Art.  —  Sculpture,  Painting,  and  Architecture. 

Illustrations.  —  The  examples  chosen  serve  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the 
works  of  this  wonderful  people.  The  Colossi  of  Memnon  and  the  sphinx  and 
pyramids  bear  testimony  to  the  colossal  nature  of  their  conceptions.  Some  idea 
of  their  size  will  be  gained  by  comparing  their  height  with  that  of  the  men  and 
camels  grouped  about  them. 

The  manner  of  tomb  painting  and  of  temple  painting  is  also  clearly  shown. 
These  illustrations  will  serve  to  add  to  the  ideas  which  the  pupils  have  gained 
concerning  the  Egyptians,  and  they  will  be  found  very  helpful  in  connection  with 
the  study  of  Egyptian  ornament.^ 

These  illustrations  are  all  described  or  alluded  to  in  an  explanatory  way  in  the 
text  for  page  lo  of  the  drawing-book. 


Egyptian  Boat. 


1  The  Prang  "  Note-Book  Illustrations,"  Egyptian  style,  six  in  number,  accompanied  by  descriptive 
text,  will  be  of  great  interest  to  both  teachers  and  pupils.    They  are  intended  for  note-book  use. 


BOOK  8. 
SIXTH  YEAR.  — SECOND  UALif. 


The  Prang  Elementary  Course  in  Art  Instruction  is  published  in 
two  separate  editions,  prepared  to  meet  the  varying  conditions 
of  the  use  of  one  or  two  books  a  year.  In  the  edition 
providing  for  the  use  of  two  books  a  year,  the  books  are 
designated  as  "No.  i,"  "No.  2,"  "No.  3,"  "No.  4,"  "No.  5," 
"  No.  6,"  et''  :  in  the  edition  providing  for  the  use  of  one 
book  a  year,  tne  books  are  named  "  Third  Year,"  "  Fourth 
Year,"  "  Fifth  Year,"  etc.  This  manual  text  has  been  especi- 
ally prepared  to  meet  the  needs  of  both  editions. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES.  169 

BOOK  8,  PAGE   i.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE   17 

ILLUSTRATIVE    PAGES. 

Figures.  — Edwin  H.  Blashfield.     Anna  E.  Klumpke. 

The  Examples.  —  These  illustrations  of  figure-drawing  are  most  interesting 
in  their  contrast.  The  two  dancers  in  "  The  Saraband  "  are  expressive  of  move- 
ment, while  ''The  Little  Reader"  is  at  rest,  absorbed  in  her  book.  "The  Sara- 
band" is  a  finished  drawing  of  a  stately  Spanish  dance;  "The  Little  Reader"  is  a 
study  for  a  picture. 

Edwin  Howland  Blashfield  is  an  American  artist,  well  known  through  his 
decorative  work.  His  subjects  appeal  strongly  to  the  imagination.  His  decorations 
in  the  Library  of  Congress,  presenting  "The  Human  Understanding"  and  "The 
Progress  of  Civilization  "  are  among  his  latest  works.  The  dignified  and  graceful 
character  of  his  work  is  well  shown  in  "The  Saraband." 

"  The  Progress  of  Civilization "  passes  around  the  collar  of  the  dome  in 
the  great  central  rotunda  of  the  Library.  It  contains  twelve  colossal  figures,  repre- 
senting twelve  nations  or  epochs,  symbohcally  treated.  These  figures  are  separated 
by  twelve  tablets,  which  mark  the  rhythm  of  the  whole.  Egypt  (Written  Records) 
Avears  the  sign  of  immortality  ;  Judea  (Religion)  holds  stone  tablets  bearing  Hebrew 
inscriptions  ;  Greece  (Philosophy)  shows  the  symbol  of  a  lamp  ;  Rome  (Administra- 
tion), as  is  fit,  has  the  baton  of  command  ;  Islam  (Physics),  representing  the  Arab 
and  Saracenic  people,  holds  a  book  and  a  glass  retort ;  The  Middle  Ages  (Lan- 
guages), having  the  features  of  Mary  Anderson,  wears  a  sword  for  chivalry,  and  is 
accompanied  by  a  model  of  a  church  for  architecture,  with  keys  and  a  crown  typify- 
ing the  church  ;  Italy  (The  Fine  Arts)  holds  a  statuette  of  Michael  Angelo's  "  David  " 
and  a  palette,  and  rests  her  foot  upon  a  capital ;  Germany  (The  Art  of  Printing) 
holds  a  proof-sheet,  and  an  early  printing  press  is  beside  the  figure  ;  Spain  (Dis- 
covery) has  as  symbols  the  rudder  of  a  ship  and  the  model  of  a  caravel ;  England 
(Literature),  a  portrait  of  Ellen  Terry,  holds  a  volume  having  the  title-page  of 
"  Midsummer  Night's  Dream "  ;  France  (Emancipation)  is  sitting  on  a  cannon, 
and  holds  a  declaration  of  the  rights  of  man  ;  America  (Science),  with  the  head 
of  Abraham  Lincoln,  is  accompanied  by  a  book  and  a  dynamo. 

The  continuity  of  the  decoration  is  secured  by  the  overlapping  of  the  out- 
spread wings  of  the  figures.  There  is  also  a  background  of  mosaic  patterning. 
Thus  the  structural  poise  of  the  whole  is  maintained.     The  colors  are  white  in  the 


170  TEACHER'S  MANUAL.    - 

wings,  blue-green  in  the  background,  and  violet  in  the  bands.  The  draperies  of  the 
figures  grade  from  white  to  violet,  shading  into  yellow  and  orange.  The  whole  is 
extremely  harmonious  in  color.  As  it  should  be  in  a  dome,  there  is  no  sense 
of  weightiness  in  the  composition ;  on  the  contrary  there  is  aspiration,  attained 
through  the  exalted  conception  and  through  its  fine  treatment. 

In  the  centre  of  this  collar  is  a  female  figure,  accompanied  by  two  boys, 
representing  "The  Human  Understanding."  The  whole  composition  accords  with 
the  architecture,  the  figures  being  well  fitted  to  their  surroundings. 

Mr.  Blashfield  has  produced  another  fine  decoration  typifying  "Music  and  The 
Dance"  for  the  Astoria  Hotel  in  New  York.  Graceful  figures  typifying  "Music" 
for  one  end  of  the  ceiling  and  "The  Dance"  for  the  other  end,  float  through  an 
atmosphere  of  sky  and  cloud  —  gray  and  blue  and  pink  and  violet  and  white  —  melt- 
ing and  flowing  into  one  another.  It  is  a  beautiful  conception,  full  of  joy  and 
delight. 

Mr.  Blashfield  has  also  painted  fine  easel  pictures.  The  "  Christmas  Bells"  is 
well  known.  There  is  another  full  of  religious  feeling,  —  "  The  Angel  with  the 
Flaming  Sword," — strong,  simple,  and  expressive. 

The  Saraband  was,  according  to  VuiUier,  a  noble  and  impassioned  Spanish 
dance  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  generally  danced  by  women  to  the  guitar. 
Sometimes  dancers  of  the  Saraband  were  accompanied  by  the  guitar  and  voice, 
which  were  sustained  by  flutes  and  harps.  The  airs  of  the  Saraband  were  very 
popular.  The  rhythm  and  cadence  gave  to  the  ear  the  impression  of  slow  and 
flowing  movement.  There  is  a  charming  picture  by  Roybet  of  two  Httle  ones 
dancing  the  "Saraband." 

Anna  E.  Klumpke  is  of  American  birth,  and  is  of  a  very  gifted  family.  Her 
art  study  has  been  largely  abroad,  and  she  is  an  exhibitor  in  the  Paris  Salon.  Her 
work  is  largely  portraiture,  but  her  figure  compositions  have  won  for  her  rank  at 
home  and  abroad. 

Th«  picture  for  which  the  study  of  "  The  Little  Reader  "  was  made  is  owned  in 
Russia,  where  Miss  Klumpke  has  traveled  extensively. 

Probably  her  most  valuable  work  is  a  portrait  of  Rosa  Bonheur,  painted  at  the 
great  artist's  request  a  few  weeks  before  her  death.  Miss  Klumpke  is  something 
besides  an  artist.  She  holds  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Mathematics  from  the 
Sorbonne,  in  Paris,  and  has  been  employed  in  the  French  Bureau  of  Measurements. 
Her  portt-ait  is  the  last  one  ever  painted  of  Rosa  Bonheur,  and  is  said  to  be  one 
of  the  best  ever  executed. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES. 


171 


BOOK  8,  PAGE  2. 


SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  18. 


ILLUSTRATIVE    PAGES. 

Still-life  and  Landscape. —  Hokusai's  Daughter.    Hiroshige. 

Illustrations. — The  difference  in  effect  in  these  illustrations  is  at  once 
apparent.  The  groups  of  still-life  on  the  left  are  from  original  water-color 
drawings ;  the  landscape  on  the  right  is  an  example  of  fine  block  printing.  In 
all  these  illustrations,  the  original  color  values  are  well  kept  in  tones  of  light 
and  dark. 


Katsushika  Hokusai,  generally  spoken  of  as  Hokusai,  in  his  prime  between 
1800  and  1820,  is  called  the  greatest  of  Japanese  artists.  He  was  born  in  1760,  in 
a  quiet  quarter  of  Yedo  full  of  gardens  and  flowers ;  he  died 
April  13,  1849.  He  says:  "From  the  age  of  six  years  I  had  a 
passion  for  drawing  the  forms  of  objects.  Toward  my  fifteenth 
year  I  had  published  a  number  of  designs."  In  his  work  he  was 
truly  universal ;  he  drew  and  painted  temples,  palaces,  houses, 
landscapes,  flowers,  insects,  fish,  birds,  trees,  gay  or  sad  subjects, 
real  or  imaginary  life,  all  equally  well.  He  became  known  through 
his  illustrations  called  "  The  Mangwa,"  or  "  Collection  of  Ten 
Thousand  Sketches,"  in  fourteen  volumes.  This  book  was  begun 
because  of  a  growing  desire  among  artists  and  artisans  for  his 
drawings  as  examples. 

He  found  time  in  the  midst  of  other  work  to  design  very 
beautiful  "  surimonos."  These  are  small  sheets  designed  by  the 
members  of  art  societies,  and  by  poets,  to  commemorate  certain 
events,  especially  the  new  year. 

He  also  made  at  least  twelve  drawing-books  and  illustrated 
scores  of  books.  His  finest  landscapes  are  thirty-six  views  of 
Mount  Fuji.  "These  views  are  perhaps,  taken  as  a  whole,  the  most  superb  set 
of  landscape  compositions  —  in  the  technical  sense  of  the  word  —  ever  made  in  the 
history  of  the  world's  art." 

His  desire  was,  in  his  own  words,  to  "  hand  down  to  future  ages  and  bring 
within  the  knowledge  of  our  remote  fellow-men  beyond  a  thousand  leagues,  the 
spirit  and  form  of  all  the  joy  and  happiness  we  see  filling  the  universe." 


172 


TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 


The  two  illustrations  of  his  work  given  here  are  very  characteristic.  The 
drawing  in  both  is  most  careful.  In  the  one  on  this  page,  the  curve  of  the  figure 
answers  to  and  complements  that  of  the  fish,  while  the  swirl  of  the  waters  holds 

all  together. 

He  had  many  notable  pupils,  and  a  talented 
daughter  who  assisted  him  in  his  classes.  The 
reproductions  in  the  drawing-book  were  made 
from  water-color  drawings  by  her,  now  in  the 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston.  They  show  fine 
composition  and  appreciation  of  color  values.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  many  of  the  Japanese 
objects,  while  beautiful  in  texture  and  general 
form,  are  yet  irregular,  and  this  irregularity  is 
seen  in  the  drawing  of  the  bowl,  of  the  bamboo 
flower-holder,  and  of  the  covered  box.  The 
directness  of  the  drawing  shows  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  objects,  and  expresses 
much  more  than  merely  a  drawing  from  an 
object. 

Long  practice  with  the  brush  is  given  in 
Japan  in  what  would  be  called  here  drill  exercise,  before  anything  like  drawing 
from  an  object  is  undertaken.  The  brush  is  held  vertical,  and  rather  far  from  the 
point,  and  a  very  steady  line  is  expected.  It  is  only  through  much,  very  much, 
practice  that  the  wonderful  Japanese  skill  is  attained. 


Hiroshige  was  born  at  Yedo  in  1786  and  died  in  1858.  He  was,  in  his  early 
days,  a  fireman,  but  afterward  one  of  the  most  original  and  talented  pupils  of  a 
great  Japanese  master.  He  made  many  single-sheet  color  prints,  but  finally  became 
one  of  the  greatest  portrayers  of  Japanese  landscape.  It  is  said  that  Hokusai  was 
rivaled  in  landscape  only  by  Hiroshige.  His  paintings  are  rare,  but  they  show 
consummate  mastery  of  the  brush. 

The  composition  of  the  landscape  illustrated  in  the  drawing-book  is  worth 
careful  study.  The  curving  oblique  lines  mediate  between  the  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal ;  the  space  divisions  are  in  beautiful  relation  to  each  other.  The  scene  is 
characteristically  Japanese,  with  Fuji-Yama  in  the  distance, —  Fuji,  whose  strong, 
beautiful  lines  and  lights  and  shades  dominate  all  Japan,  and  which  is  an  object 
of  lovins  adoration. 


REPRESENTATION.  173 

BOOK  8,  PAGE   3.  SIXTH  YEAR   BOOK,   PAGE   19. 

REPRESENTATION. 

Beautiful  Objects.  —  Form.    Appearance. 
Art. —  Selection.    Composition.    Rendering. 

[The  pupil  selects  and  arranges  beautiful  objects  and  sketches 
them,  decides  upon  an  arrangement  that  shows  a  beautiful 
aspect  and  good  composition,  and  draws  it  in  the  book,  study- 
ing the  example  for  rendering.] 

Beautiful  Objects.  — The  beginning  of  conscious  power  in  drawing  is  often 
marked  by  tlie  fine  feeling  shown  by  the  pupils  for  objects  from  which  good 
sketches  can  be  made.  In  this  year's  work  objects  good  in  form  and  strong  in 
color  are  readily  appreciated  by  both  teacher  and  pupils. 

'•  To  adorn  all  he  touches  is  the  raison  d'etre  of  every  artist.  The  blacksmith,  the 
illuminator,  the  C"binet-maker  of  the  Middle  Ages,  put  his  whole  conception  of  the 
beautiful  into  his  productions,  whether  it  was  the  iron  work  of  a  box  or  a  candlestick,  an 
ornamental  letter,  or  a  piece  of  furniture.  There  is  as  much  beauty  in  a  Greek  vase  as  in 
the  sublimest  statue ;  and  the  man  to-day  who  makes  a  stoneware  pot,  adorned  with  all 
the  magic  of  the  fire  and  radiant  in  the  rich  splendor  of  its  material,  holds  in  the  eyes  of 
all  who  really  understand  what  art  means,  a  place  of  equality  beside  the  masters  of  the 
brush  and  the  chisel. 

"  There  is  no  such  thing  as  inferiority  in  art ;  one  may  exhibit  just  as  much  originality, 
talent,  and  genuine  merit  in  shaping  a  pot  or  a  vase,  or  any  other  article  of  daily  use,  as  in 
transferring  some  picturesque  scene  on  to  canvas."  —  Gabriel  Mourey. 

Different  materials  are  susceptible  of,  indeed  require,  different  treatment,  even 
in  their  manufacture. 

"Vases  may  be  manufactured  in  pottery,  metal,  or  in  stone.  In  each  of  these  classes 
special  treatment  will  be  required.  In  a  vase  made  of  clay  the  soft  plasticity  of  the 
material  lends  itself  to  a  free,  bold,  and  full  contour,  such  as  would  be  difficult  to  obtain  in 
a  vase  carved  out  of  hard  stone.  Then  a  vase  in  metal  could  have  finer  and  smaller 
mouldings  and  projecting  details  than  would  be  possible  to  either  pottery  or  stone. 

"  It  will  also  be  seen  that  a  vase  manufactured  from  clay  will  need  a  broader  foot  for 
support  of  the  superincumbent  weight  than  one  made  in  bronze  or  iron,  the  strength  of 
these  metals  in  comparison  to  their  bulk  being  much  greater  than  that  of  clay." 

An  important  feature  of  constructive  design  is  this  trained  judgment,  which  comes 
from  a  constant  exercise  of  eye  and  hand  and  a  true  feeling  for  and  appreciation  of 
the  beautiful.     Manual  training  has  proven  that  some  pupils  are  strong  on  the  con- 


174 


teacher's  manual. 


structive  side  who  have  little  or  no  power  to  express  their  creative  ability  in  the 
graphic  arts.  Walter  Crane  has  always  felt  very  keenly  the  true  democracy  and 
inclusiveness  of  art,  and  is  constantly  preaching  its  gospel. 

"  If  art  depends  upon  labor,  labor  also  depends  upon  art.  The  architect  must  plan 
the  house  before  the  laborer  can  get  to  work,  and  designs  of  all  kinds  must  exist  in  the 
head  before  they  can  be  executed  by  the  hands.  What  we  want  is  to  bring  heads  and 
hands  together  again,  and  on  the  same  shoulders,  and  not  keep  them  as  classes  apart." 
—  Walter  Crane. 

Preparation  for  the  Lesson.  —  The  selection  of  a  beautiful  form,  and  one 
adapted  to  use  as  a  receptacle  for  flowers,  should  be  considered  by  teacher  and 

pupils  as  a  preparation  for  this  lesson.  A  vase  suitable 
for  holding  a  long-stemmed  flower  or  a  few  flowers 
should  be  small  at  the  top,  there  should  be  a  large 
space  below  in  order  to  hold  plenty  of  water,  and  there 
should  be  a  broad  base  to  insure  solidity  and  support. 
Vases  for  containing  flowers  are  not  always  adapted  to 
their  purpose.  Lead  the  pupils  to  study  the  example 
on  the  drawing-book  page,  —  the  beauty  of  the  whole 
composition,  the  grace  and  richness  of  the  flower,  the 
fine  form  and  color  of  the  vase.  Lead  them  also  to 
observe  the  beauty  of  the  Japanese  design  from  the 
chrysanthemum.  The  fineness  of  the  movement  and 
rhythm  in  these  borders  is  promised  by  the  beautiful 
balance  and  graceful  curve  of  the  flower  in  the  vase. 
Let  them  study  the  expression  of  color  in  the  Japanese 
borders,  and  try  to  understand  what  it  means  to 
express  color  in  a  pencil  drawing.  Then  let  them 
study  the  colors  in  the  flower  and  vase,  —  the  green 
leaves,  the  yellow  or  white  blossom,  the  rich  dark 
brown  or  dull  red  varying  to  a  lighter  tone  in  the  vase. 
Let  them  look  also  at  the  illustrations  of  Japanese  water-color  drawings  (Book  8, 
page  2  ;  Sixth  Year  Book,  page  i8)  and  note  the  different  expression  of  color. 


Vases  on  Bamboo  Shelves.  ' 


"  The  rustic  family  of  ox-eves  claim 
A  royal  cousin,  clad  in  jiurple, 
Pearl,  ruby,  fleecy  colors  such  as  fold 
The  couching  sun,  and  with  a  lofty 
name, 


Chrysanthemum,  —  appearing  proud 

To  startle  poor  November  with  a  flame 

Of  sumptuous  flowers,  making  summer  tame, 

And  flush  with  Eastern  pomp  the  dark  and 

cold." 

—  William  Allingham. 


REPRESENTATION.  175 

Suggest  to  them  to  look  in  shop  windows  or  in  their  homes  for  objects  as 
beautiful  as  the  vase  in  the  drawing.  If  there  is  not  a  supply  of  such  objects  at 
hand,  get  the  pupils  to  bring  them  or  dealers  to  lend  them.  There  is  increasing 
generosity  on  the  part  of  dealers  in  fine  wares,  shown  in  their  willingness  to  lend 
beautiful  objects.  The  flowers  may  be  obtained  from  the  homes  of  the  children, 
the  chrysanthemum  being  common  both  in  cities  and  in  villages.  Cosmos,  and 
other  beautiful  composite  flowers,  can  also  be  found. 

Suggestions  for  the  Exercise.  —  Help  the  pupils  to  select  either  a  beauti- 
ful vase  or  two  beautiful  objects,  or  a  fine  vase  with  a  beautiful  flower,  and  to  arrange 
the  study  or  studies  so  that  the  light  will  bring  out  the  greatest  beauties  of  the 
objects.  Ask  them  to  sketch  from  the  study,  keeping  in  mind  the  drawing  in 
the  book  as  a  suggestion  for  rendering.  The  dark  color  of  the  pottery  is  shown 
plainly  in  the  dark  treatment  of  the  vase.  While  the  effect  as  a  whole  is  very  broad 
and  simple,  the  depth  of  shade  is  evident  where  the  vase  rounds  away  from  the 
light.  The  high  light  is  strong,  showing  that  the  texture  is  hard  and  glazed.  The 
smoother  the  glaze,  the  sharper  the  high  lights  and  the  stronger  the  reflections. 

Observe  that  the  petals  of  the  flower  lose  their  definite  form  in  the  high  light. 
See  how  admirably  the  peculiar  texture  of  the  chrysanthemum  petals  is  shown  as 
'they  turn  from  the  light. 

In  drawing,  its  beauty  can  only  be  suggested.  If  each  detail  is  carefully  drawn 
and  considered  by  itself  and  not  as  related  to  other  parts  and  the  general  effect  as  a 
whole,  with  one  part  made  just  as  prominent  as  another,  the  result  may  have  some 
value  as  a  botanical  diagram,  but  it  will  not  be  a  work  of  art,  for  art  is  not  imitation, 
but  suggestion. 

To  secure  a  condition  favorable  for  good  results  be  sure  that  the  pupils  are  far 
enough  away  from  the  examples  studied  to  see  their  beauty  as  a  whole.  Let  the 
pencils  be  soft,  rather  than  hard,  not  too  sharp,  and  held  long  and  easily.  Ask  the 
pupils  to  study  what  they  are  about  to  draw  a  few  moments  in  relation  to  the 
direction  of  the  light  and  the  effect  produced  upon  the  group  and  to  place  mentally 
the  group  within  the  space^and  to  consider  how  and  where  to  get  the  best  possible 
effect  upon  their  space.  If  pupils  did  a  little  more  thinking  before  starting  to 
draw,  there  would  be  fewer  failures.  Let  all  the  first  lines  be  very  faint,  just  consid- 
erations of  the  space  and  the  leading  lines  so  as  to  avoid  disturbing  the  texture 
of  the  paper  by  erasing. 

Lis;ht  and  Shade  and  Light  and  Dark  are  terms  often  heard.  Effects  in 
light  and  shade  are  produced  by  considering  and  treating  the  objects  or  groups  to 
be  drawn  in  relation  to  the  effect  produced  upon  them  by  the  light  that  falls  upon 


176  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

them.  When  possible  a  direct  rather  than  a  diffused  light  is  the  more  desirable  — 
usually  from  the  left  and  above.  This  can  be  obtained  by  closing  the  shutters  or 
drawing  the  curtains  at  the  right  of,  or  behind  the  pupils,  and  closing  the  lower  shutters 
at  the  left.  The  highest  light  will  then  be  evident,  as  well  as  the  shade  and  the  shadow 
which  is  cast  by  the  object  or  group  of  objects.  If  a  shadow-box  is  used  this  cast 
shadow  will  be  more  or  less  definite  in  shape  and  may  fall  not  only  on  the  horizontal 
plane  but  also  on  the  vertical.  The  rendering  of  texture  is  much  helped  by  the  shape 
of  the  shadow.  A  wooden  sphere  will  cast  a  more  definite  and  clear-cut  shadow 
than  an  orange  or  a  worsted  ball.  The  shape  of  shadows  should  receive  careful 
attention,  the  outline  of  the  shadow  being  as  essential  an  object  of  study  as  the 
contours  of  the  solids  casting  them. 

Light  and  dark  relates  more  to  color  than  to  the  appearance  of  forms  as  affected 
by  light  and  shade.  Light  and  dark  may  be  considered  in  connection  with  light 
and  shade,  or  only  as  tones  of  color.  In  the  group  in  the  drawing-book  page  the 
contrast  of  light  and  dark  is  very  rnarked  between  the  dark  vase  and  the  light 
flower,  and  there  is  also  some  effect  of  light  and  shade  upon  both  vase  and  flower. 
The  Japanese  borders  are  treated  in  light  and  dark,  the  tones  are  kept  flat  and 
without  modehng  or  any  attempt  to  introduce  light  and  shade.  The  section  of  one 
border  is  in  two  tones,  gray  and  white.  The  one  beside  it  is  carried  out  with  gray 
and  black.  Below,  the  longer  border  shows  three  tones,  white,  black,  and  gray. 
Such  treatment  is  most  effective  when  carried  out  in  a  full  tone  of  black  ink  for  the 
greatest  dark  (India  ink  when  possible),  the  ink  slightly  diluted  for  the  gray  tone, 
and  the  white  of  the  paper  left  for  the  white.  Pencil  painting  may  be  used  for 
such  effects,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  glaze  the  paper  by  using  too  much 
pressure,  and  it  will  be  well  to  lay  a  piece  of  thin  paper  over  the  completed  work,  to 
avoid  smearing  the  opposite  page.  Light  and  dark  is  often  used  with  good  effect 
for  very  simple  landscapes  to  illustrate  good,  simple  composition.  The  method  is 
also  used  for  flowers  producing  a  decorative  effect. 

If  the  pupils  should  succeed  in  their  pictorial  study,  they  can  try  a  composition 
of  the  flower  in  an  oblong  in  black  and  white,  as  suggested  by  Plate  XII. 

If  this  drawing-book  is  used  in  the  spring  instead  of  the  fall,  this  page  may  be 
reserved  until  peonies,  snowballs,  or  roses  can  be  procured ;  any  flower,  in  fact, 
characteristic  in  form  and  requiring  breadth  of  treatment  to  secure  artistic  effect. 
If  roses  are  used,  contrast  in  color  (light  and  dark)  may  be  brought  out  by  placing 
a  dark  rose  in  a  glass  vase,  or  a  white  rose  in  a  dark  vase.     The  treatment  of  a 


PLATE   XII. 


/f  ^, 


'■:■&  \f 


/:-. 


Studies  of  Chrysanthemums.  —  Pictorial  and  Decorative  Composition. 


REPRESENTA  TION. 


177 


white  rose  in  strong  light  should  be  very  delicate  on  the  side  toward  the  light. 
Sometimes  a  slight  suggestion  of  background  on  the  light  side  will  bring  out  the 
shape  without  making  the  petals  appear  hard  and  unnatural.  The  pupils  may  be 
helped  to  see  what  is  meant  by  treatment  showing  "  color  "  in  pencil  work  and  "  effects 
in  light  and  shade  and  light  and  dark  "  by  studying  the  illustrations  in  current 
magazines  and  in  illustrated  books.  Such  examples  may  be  brought  to  the  school- 
room and  passed  about  among  the  pupils.  Guard  against  the  formation  of  a 
critical  spirit  in  the  pupils  in  regard  to  these  examples.  Lead  them  to  look  for  and 
to  appreciate  the  good  work  that  is  brought  in,  and  to  pass  by  quietly  any  unworthy 
examples.     "  Silence  is  golden  "  may  be  a  most  pertinent  proverb  at  this  time. 

"  White  like  a  white  rose,  not  like  these  that  were 
Taught  of  the  wind's  mouth  and  the  winter  air, 
Poor  tender  thing  of  soft  Italian  bloom, 

Where  once  thou  grewest,  what  else  for  me  grew  there  ?" 

"  The  year  of  the  rose  is  brief; 
From  the  first  blade  bloom  to  the  sheaf. 

From  the  thin  green  leaf  to  the  gold. 

It  has  time  to  be  sweet  and  grow  old. 
To  triumph  and  leave  not  a  leaf." 

—  SWINBUKNE. 


178  teacher's  manual. 

BOOK  8,  PAGE  4.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  2a 

REPRESENTATION. 

Objects.  —  Form.     Appearance.     Light  and  Shade.     Light  and  Dark. 
Art.  —  Selection.     Placing.     Choice  of  Aspect.     Rendering. 

[The  pupil  selects  simple  objects  of  good  form  and  color,  places 
them  in  a  pleasing  position,  studying  the  effects  of  light  and 
shade,  chooses  the  arrangement  that  gives  the  best  effect,  and 
draws  it  in  the  book,  expressing  the  light  and  dark  of  the 
object,  and  the  effect  of  light  and  shade  on  the  object.] 

Light  and  Dark.  Light  and  Shade.  —  In  the  preceding  exercise  the 
attention  of  the  pupils  has  been  called  to  the  expression  of  the  green  leaves,  and 
the  white,  or'  nearly  white,  blossom  of  the  chrysanthemum,  and  of  the  rich,  dark 
color  of  the  vase.  These  are  quahties  of  dark  and  light  in  color,  in  the  objects 
themselves.  In  the  present  exercise  the  pupils  are  called  upon,  not  only  to 
represent  an  object  as  light  and  dark  in  itself,  but  as  affected  by  the  light  around  it, 
which  illuminates  one  part  of  the  object,  and  leaves  the  rest  dark.  This  double 
problem  of  expression  is  difficult  unless  the  objects  are  well  chosen.  The  object 
represented  in  the  example  given  on  the  drawing-book  page  is  dark  brown  and  light 
gray,  and  is  glazed.^  The  light  strikes  the  object  on  the  left,  and  is  also  reflected 
in  the  glaze.  All  these  points  are  shown  in  the  drawing  by  the  management  of 
dark  and  hght  masses.  Notice  also  the  Japanese  illustrations  (Book  8,  page  2  ; 
Sixth  Year  Book,  page  18.)     These  show  color  rather  than  light  and  shade. 

There  is  a  good  chance  here  to  dwell  slightly  upon  "  fitness  to  purpose."  We 
would  call  this  object  a  pitcher,  and  it  is  evidently  intended  for  domestic  purposes. 
The  same  form  in  England  is  spojcen  of  as  a  jug,  while  in  Japan,  the  father-land  of 
so  many  beautiful  forms  in  pottery  and  porcelain,  this  shape  is  unknown,  and 
*'  pitchers  "  or  "jugs  "  are  made  only  in  a  limited  quantity  for  foreign  markets.  An 
English  writer,  in  commenting  upon  good  design  in  the  household,  says  :  — 

"  The  well  domesticated  modern  designer  is  the  man  we  must  pray  for.  It  is  not 
enough  that  he  shall  select  Delia  Robbia  ware  for  emulation,  if  he  have  not  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  exigencies  of  the  household.  What  is  the  good  to  me  of  a  milk-jug  that 
costs  ten-and-sixpence,  and   pours   out   at   three  places  at  once,  and  that  no  ordinarily 

1  The  Prang  Educational  Company  has  had  a  large  variety  of  pottery  manufactured  by  the  best 
Japanese  houses,  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  primary  and  grammar  schools  with  fine  examples  of 
beautiful  form  and  color  as  material  for  study.  The  best  teachers  everywhere  are  feeling  the  need 
■of  such  material  in  the  schoolroom. 


REPRESENTA  TION. 


179 


fingered  maid  can  or  will  clean  out  ?  My  milk-jug  must  be,  not  cheap,  but  inexpensive  ;  it 
must  not  deluge  my  table-cloth,  and  must  not  need  a  special  servant  to  look  after  it ;  other- 
wise my  purse  and  wife  will  not  consent  to  its  introduction  into  the  household." 

Avoid  being  insistent  upon  any  special  method,  and  above  all  avoid  strong  criti- 
cisms of  results.  It  takes  years  of  study  to  draw  and  express  with  ease,  freedom,  and 
fine  effect  in  any  medium.  It  is  better  to  praise  excellent  work  than  to  comment 
upon  failure. 

"  Life  is  too  short  to  waste  "  'Twill  soon  be  dark ; 

In  critic  peep  or  cynic  bark,  Up !  mind  thine  own  aim  and 

Quarrel  or  reprimand  :  —  God  speed  the  mark  ! " 

—  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

Suggestions  for  the  Teacher.  —  Lead  the  pupils  to  study  the  example  on 
the  drawing-book  page,  and  as  many  other  good  examples  as  possible.  Copying 
the  example  on  paper  will  possibly  fix  the  rendering  better  than  mere  observation. 
Select  objects  simple  in  form  and  with  reasonable  contrasts  of  color,  seeking  especially 
for  some  strong,  dark  notes  of  color.  Place  the  objects  so  that  the  light  falls  from 
but  one  window  upon  the  object.  This  can  be  regulated  by  "  shadow-boxes  "  made 
of  thick  paper,  and  so  arranged  as  to  cut  off  all  light  except  that  falling  directly  on 
the  object.  Avoid  a  light  directly  in  front.  Most  school  buildings  are  now  arranged 
so  that  the  light  falls  entire  from  the  back  or  at  one  or  the  other  side.  If  it  falls 
from  the  back  of  the  room  it  will  be  very  hard  to  get  effects  in  light  and  shade. 
Color  (or  light  and  dark)  may  be  substituted  for  light  and  shade.  Let  the  pupils 
sketch  the  object,  studying  the  rendering  in  the  drawing-books  once  more.  After 
the  study  is  well  understood,  let  the  pupils  render  it  in  the  drawing-books. 


Pupils'  Work. 


180  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

BOOK  8,  PAGE  5.  SIXTH  YEAR   BOOK.  PAGE  21, 

REPRESENTATION. 

Nature.  —  Animal  Studies.     Form.     Position.     Action. 
Art.  —  Choice  of  Aspect.     Rendering. 

[The  pupil  sketches  animals  in  different  positions,  studies  their  gen- 
eral characteristics,  and  dra^ws  an  animal  in  the  book,  V7ith  very- 
little  detail,  studying  the  examples  of  rendering.] 

Animal  Study.  —  The  practice  of  bringing  into  the  schoolroom  animals  and 
birds  makes  the  suggestion  reasonable  and  practicable  that  such  subjects  shall  be 
obtained  for  drawing  lessons.  Many  pupils  have  pets,  from  the  familiar  dog  and 
cat,  to  the  rabbit  and  squirrel.  When  possible,  it  would  be  well  to  have  a  nature- 
study  lesson  precede  the  drawing,  not  only  to  correlate  the  studies,  but  to  utilize  the 
subject  while  obtainable,  and  to  derive  as  much  benefit  as  possible  through  observa- 
tion. Little  creatures,  Hke  the  rabbit  and  squirrel,  move  about  a  great  deal ;  there- 
fore they  are  better  for  quick-action  studies,  than  for  finished  drawings. 

The  pupils  may  place  upon  the  space  on  page  5  of  the  drawing-book,  careful, 
yet  quick  sketches  of  parts  of  an  animal.  A  number  of  these  may  be  made,  the 
pupil  returning  to  a  former  sketch  occasionally  to  add  further  touches  when 
the  animal  resumes  a  previous  position.  As  a  preparation  for  the  lesson  it  would 
be  well  to  talk  with  the  pupils  of  the  value  of  suggestive  sketches,  of  the  practice 
of  artists  of  making  numberless  quick  fragmentary  sketches,  sometimes  as  pre- 
liminary to  the  composition  of  an  important  picture,  and  sometimes  merely  as 
practice  or  for  notes  of  reference  in  time  of  need. 

The  sketches  by  John  La  Farge  in  the  drawing-book  and  on  Plate  XIII.  show 
very  little  finish  and  yet  are  so  suggestive  of  the  life  and  characteristics  of  the 
animal.  The  Japanese  horses  in  the  landscape,  by  Hiroshige  (Book  8,  page  2  ; 
Sixth  Year  Book,  page  18),  are  interesting.  Pupils  should  see  the  value  of  having 
every  line  tell,  that  they  may  not  fuss  over  their  work  nor  add  meaningless  details. 
Speak  of  some  of  the  well-known  animals,  as  the  horse,  the  dog  and  cat,  their  in- 
telligence and  companionship,  their  characteristic  form  and  action. 

The  cat  is  always  an  interesting  subject  for  a  sketch,  and  the  space  upon  the 
page  may  be  filled  with  action  studies  of  a  cat  in  different  positions.  A  small  terrier 
or  a  pug  dog  is  also  a  good  subject.     Tact  must  be  used  to  keep  the  animal  from 


PLATE   XIII. 


f 


% 


C 


'^. 


v?^ 


y' 


\  s, 


Sketches.  —  John   La  Farge. 


REPRESENTA  TION.  181 

being  too  much  excited  by  unusual  surroundings ;  for  that  reason  it  is  desirable  to 
have  the  owner  present  and  perhaps  in  close  attendance. 
An  illustrator  and  a  close  student  of  the  cat  says  :  — 

"  The  cat  seems  to  have  a  knowledge  of  decorative  effect.  I  have  watched  successive 
generations  of  cats  inhabiting  the  gardens  of  old  houses.  They  seemed  to  consider  the 
low  wall  or  the  pillars  of  the  gateway  especially  made  to  display  their  fantastic  dignity. 
When  cats  change  their  attitudes  their  movements  are  always  graceful.  Sudden  changes 
in  dogs  are  usually  brought  about  by  movements  as  ungainly  as  those  of  Dr.  Johnson,  but 
a  cat  has  an  inalienable  quality  of  beauty.  Even  when  a  mistaken  sense  of  dignity  leads 
a  cat  to  the  verge  of  being  ridiculous,  it  somehow  always  manages  to  escape  being  con- 
temptible by  its  decorative  instinct. 

"  The  nervousness  and  restlessness  of  cats  make  it  sometimes  difficult  to  obtain 
characteristic  sketches  of  them.  After  sitting  in  a  beautiful  attitude  for  some  time  there 
will  suddenly  be  a  collapse  into  a  ma.ss  of  fur  of  impossible  limpness.  The  most  success- 
ful results  in  the  way  of  sketches  have  occasionally  been  obtained  where  the  cat  turned  his 
back  on  the  tiresome  proceeding,  the  long  flowing  lines  with  the  splendid  tail  giving  a 
characteristic  effect  of  grace  and  beauty." 

In  speaking  of  the  work  and  methods  of  an  English  animal  painter,  a  com- 
petent critic  says  :  — 

"  We  have  in  England  no  one  who  can  compare  with  J.  M.  Swan  as  an  e.xponent  of 
■what  is  correct  and  appropriate  in  the  representation  of  animal  types  and  characteristics. 
His  work  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  has  been  from  the  first  a  searching  for  something  more 
-than  mere  attitude.  He  concerns  himself  about  the  individual  character  and  personal 
peculiarities  of  the  beasts,  every  pose  that  he  renders,  every  action  that  he  represents,  has 
a  meaning  of  its  own.  He  combines  a  scientific  power  of  observation  with  artistic  skill 
of  a  very  high  order.  He  has,  too,  the  rarest  of  gifts,  an  exact  judgment  of  the  right 
moment  to  stop.  Nothing  that  he  does  is  ever  carried  farther  than  is  necessary  to  make  its 
meaning  clear,  and  no  elaboration  for  its  own  sake  ever  spoils  the  significance  and  sim- 
plicity of  his  work.  He  uses  habitually  the  very  smallest  number  of  touches  that  will 
express  his  meaning ;  but  as  every  one  must  fulfill  its  exact  function,  nothing  that  he  puts 
upon  paper  or  canvas  is  in  the  smallest  degree  tentative  or  undecided.  Therefore  his  use 
of  line  is  very  sensitive.  By  very  subtle  modulations  and  variations  in  direction  he  will 
make  a  single  line  suggest  not  only  bone  and  muscle,  but  something  also  of  the  modeling 
of  the  furry  coat." 

A  suggestive  drawing  or  painting  appeals  so  much  to  us  because  it  leaves  something 
to  the  imagination.  The  Greeks  understood  this,  and  while  they  were  masters  of  line 
and  form  they  never  over-elaborated  detail.  Observe  the  quality  of  suggestiveness  in 
the  fragment  of  the  Parthenon  frieze  in  the  drawing-book  page;  while  the  horses  are 


182  teacher's  manual. 

restless  and  prancing,  what  majesty  and  dignity  there  is  in  their  carriage!  Assyrian 
sculpture  made  much  of  animals,  especially  as  seen  in  the  chase.  A  very  fine  collec- 
tion of  these  sculptured  animals  showing  the  Assyrian  method  of  treatment  can  be 
seen  at  the  Peabody  Museum,  Cambridge.  They  belong  to  Harvard  College.  Upon 
these  slabs  are  sculptured  in  low  relief  battle  scenes  in  which  horses  are  shown  in 
violent  action.  The  king  evidently  rode  out  to  conquer  and  returned  in  triumph. 
Some  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  sculptures  are  those  pertaining  to  the  chase, 
mares  are  running  with  their  colts,  wild  asses  are  pursued  by  dogs  ;  the  king  rides 
forth  with  his  retinue  and  kills  the  lion  with  his  arrow.  In  all  these  scenes  the  life 
and  action  are  truly  wonderful. 

Painters  have  become  noted  for  their  successful  treatment  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 
animals  of  various  kinds.  Landseer  painted  the  deer  in  his  native  glen  and  was 
especially  fond  of  representing  all  kinds  of  dogs.  Rosa  Bonheur's  power  as  an 
animal  painter  is  well  known.  Troyon  made  masterly  studies  of  animals.  In  this 
country  there  are  able  painters  and  sculptors  who  use  animals  as  subjects  for  their 
work.  The  sculptured  animals  used  as  decorative  motives  on  the  buildings  at  the 
World's  Fair  at  Chicago  were  very  striking,  such  as  the  bear,  the  moose,  the 
antelope,  the  jaguar,  the  elk,  and  the  buffalo.  Edward  Kemeys  and  A.  P.  Proctor 
did  much  of  this  sculpture  of  animals  native  to  America. 

Two  sitting  lions  by  Louis  St.  Gaudens  are  at  the  sides  of  the  staircase  of  the 
interior  of  the  Boston  Public  Library.  They  hold  the  position  of  quiet  but  alert 
sentinels,  and  while  of  great  interest  in  themselves,  are  treated  in  such  a  grand  and 
simple  way  as  to  seem  a  part  of  the  decorative  scheme  which,  including  the  stately 
stairway  and  the  wall  decorations  by  Puvis  de  Chavannes,  forms  a  most  harmonious 
whole. 

Proportion  and  Relation.  —  If  a  dog's  head  seems  a  happy  selection  for 
the  space,  then  let  the  children  decide  how  large  it  should  be  upon  the  page,  and 
make  several  Hght  marks  to  signify  the  approximate  boundaries.  The  head  should 
also  be  lightly  blocked,  and  the  proportion  and  relation  of  each  part  to  the  other 
should  be  carefully  considered,  as  good  drawing  and  placing  are  quite  as  important 
as  artistic  effect.  If  considerable  color  is  shown  in  black  and  white  with  the  pencil, 
then  it  would  be  well  to  place  a  piece  of  paper  over  the  completed  sketch  to  prevent 
soiling  the  opposite  page. 

Bony  Structure  and  Muscular  Development.  —  In  all  animal  study, 
as  in  study  from  the  human  figure,  the  fact  of  the  underlying  bony  structure  should 
be  well  borne  in  mind,  as  well  as  the  muscular  development.     The  pupils  should 


REPRESENTATION.  -  183 

study  the  general  effect  of  the  animal  as  a  whole,  look  for  the  long  lines,  the  lead- 
ing characteristics  and  peculiarities  shown  in  the  contour,  and  feel  the  strength 
under  the  curve.  A  lack  of  such  study  will  result  in  forms  apparently  stuffed  with 
sawdust.  In  order  to  help  the  pupils  to  feel  these  individual  characteristics  of 
different  animals  it  may  be  well  to  speak  of  the  dog  as  sinewy  and  muscular,  with 
powerful  haunches,  the  body  slender  at  the  back  for  speed  and  strength,  —  the  alert- 
ness of  the  rabbit  and  the  reason  for  the  strong  hips,  —  the  grace  and  repose  of  the 
cat.  The  difference  is  marked  sometimes  between  animals  of  the  same  kind,  as  the 
greyhound  and  the  terrier,  the  pug  and  the  setter.  The  legs  of  animals  are  very 
different  and  are  admirably  adapted  to  their  purpose,  as  in  the  horse,  the  dog,  the  pig, 
and  the  cat.     The  curves  of  the  pig  are  very  decided,  the  muscles  are  so  lost  in  fat. 

Sources  of  Information.  —  Much  can  be  learned  of  the  habits  of  animals 
in  Hterature.  Much  that  Darwin  has  written  in  this  direction  would  be  of  great  in- 
terest and  profit  to  the  pupils.  Animals  have  always  been  a  prominent  feature  in 
story  and  fable.  Kipling's  Jungle  Tales  are  full  of  fanciful  interpretations  of  animal 
life.  The  wild  beasts  live  and  talk  after  the  manner  of  human  beings  though  still' 
true  to  their  wild  life.  Kipling  speaks  of  monkeys  as  being  so  intensely  interested  in 
what  they  are  doing  and  yet  the  next  minute  seeming  to  forget  what  they  have  done. 
This  seems  a  fine  touch,  as  monkeys  are  in  so  many  ways  like  man  and  yet  lacking 
in  judgment  and  continuity  of  purpose.  The  life  of  Movvgli  with  his  friends  the 
wolves,  and  his  various  adventures,  the  wonderful  word-pictures  of  a  forest  in  India, 
are  of  interest  to  every  one  and  give  much  food  for  the  imagination. 

"  The  wolf  cub  at  even  lay  hid  in  the  corn 

When  the  smoke  of  the  cooking  hung  gray ; 
He  knew  where  the  doe  made  a  couch  for  her  fawn, 
And  he  looked  to  his  strength  for  his  prey. 
But  the  moon  swept  the  smoke-wreaths  away. 
And  he  turned  from  his  meal  in  the  villager's  close, 
And  he  bayed  to  the  moon  as  she  rose." 

'  '  "  '  '•'••'  •     — RuDYARD  Kipling. 

Home  Work.  —  Encourage  work  out  of  school.  If  the  pupils  can  make, 
sketches  from  horses,  cows,  or  such  animals  (subjects  impossible  to  study  in  the  school-, 
room),  let  them  bring  such  sketches  ;  have  them  pinned  against  the  blackboard, 
and  discuss  them  informally  and  impersonally,  the  teacher  and  pupils  offering  help-' 
ful  suggestions.  This  is  the  Art  School  method,  and  is  always  valuable.  The. pupils 
may  collect  good  pictures  of  animals  and  study  them. 


184  teacher's  manual. 


BOOK  8,  PAGE  6.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  22, 

DECORATION. 

Examples,  —  Historic  Ornament.     Greek.     Space  Relations. 
Art.  —  Rendering.     Expression  of  Color. 

[The  pupil  studies  the  examples  on  the  dra^ving-book  page,  observ- 
ing the  use  of  ornament,  plans  for  the  enlargement  of  an  example, 
and  reproduces  it  enlarged  in  the  book,  or  designs  and  dra^wrs 
another  vase  or  pitcher  on  the  drawing-book  page,  seeking  for 
beauty  of  line  and  of  space  relations,  and  shoAving  color  by  brush 
and  ink,  if  desired,  or  by  water-color  or  by  colored  paper.] 

Historic  Ornament.  —  The  primitive  needs  of  man  are  for  food,  shelter,  and 
clothing ;  the  desire  for  beauty  follows  close  upon  these.  From  the  earliest  times 
and  among  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  people,  the  love  of  beauty  has  always  found 
some  means  of  expression.  It  is  found  embodied  in  the  forms  and  decorations  of 
pottery,  in  the  colors  and  patterns  of  woven  stuffs,  above  all,  in  architecture,  sculpture, 
and  painting.  Different  peoples  and  different  ages  have  expressed  in  very  different 
ways  the  desire  for  beauty  common  to  them  all,  but,  as  one  studies  the  work  they 
have  left  behind,  it  is  found  that,  starting  from  widely  different  standpoints,  they 
often  reached  the  same  elementary  principles  of  beauty,  —  certain  principles  which 
seem  to  underlie  all  beauty.  So,  when  studying  either  to  appreciate  better  the 
beauty  in  the  art  work  of  others,  or  to  express  better  our  own  inward  conceptions  of 
beauty,  it  is  a  great  help  to  see  how  the  people  of  old  times  felt  about  such  things, 
and  in  how  many  different  ways  they  embodied  their  own  beautiful  ideals.  This  is 
the  main  purpose  of  studying  Historic  Ornament. 

Greece. — The  two  countries,  Egypt  and  Greece,  are  so  extremely  different, 
that  they  become  very  interesting  by  comparison.  Egypt  on  the  map  covers  quite 
an  extent  of  country,  but  Egypt  itself  is  really  only  the  country  along  the  Nile. 
Egypt  then  means  virtually  the  long  strip  of  country  which  embraces  the  banks  of 
the  Nile,  and  is  fertilized  by  the  annual  inundation  of  that  river.  The  climate  is 
mild  ;  it  is  said  there  are  but  two  seasons  in  Egypt,  spring  and  summer.  Thus  Egypt 
is  but  little  diversified  in  physical  conformation  ;  the  slight  changes  in  season  are 
at  long  intervals,  and  hence  the  rhythm  of  national  life  is  made  up  of  slow  alterna- 
tions. All  Egyptian  art  tells  of  calm  restraint  and  endurance,  from  the  attitude  of 
the  images  of  her  gods,  to  her  temples  and  pyramids  that  have  stood  sixty  centuries. 

The  country  of  Greece  presents  wholly  different  conditions.  Almost  a  peninsula 
itself,  it  is  made  up  of  peninsulas.     Look  at  the  map,  and  you  will  see  how  the  coast 


DECORATION. 


185 


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186  teacher's  manual. 

is  broken  all  along  its  line.  The  sea,  restless,  joyous,  powerful  and  grand,  ebbs  and 
flows  sinuously  along  the  shores,  or  dashes  in  and  out,  penetrating  far  into  the  clefts 
and  fiords.  All  is  hfe  and  motion.  Greece  has  mountains  too ;  Mount  Olympus 
and  Mount  Parnassus  are  but  parts  of  chains  and  ranges  that  stretch  through  the  land 
and  that  make  green  valleys.  The  sun  shines  brilliantly  over  all ;  the  trees  and 
flowers  and  fruit  grow  marvellously.  It  is  a  very  beautiful  country,  full  of  variety  and 
charm.  Its  climate  ranges  from  intense  cold  in  winter  to  fierce  heat  in  summer, 
partaking  of  the  temperature  of  the  north  and  south. 

"  Fair  clime!  where  every  season  smiles 

Benignant  o'er  those  blessed  isles, 

Which,  seen  from  far  Colonna's  height, 
/Make  glad  the  heart  that  hails  the  sight,/ 

And  lends  to  loneliness  delight. 
/There,  mildly  dimpling,  Ocean's  cheek  1 
(Reflects  the  tints  of  many  a  peak       -^ 

Caught  by  the  laughing  tides  that  lave 

These  Edens  of  the  Eastern  wave." 

—  Lord  Byron. 

Its  People. — The  richness  and  variety  and  beauty  of  the  country  are  found 
reflected  in  the  nation.  The  people  climbed  mountains  and  labored  diligently  at  the 
oar,  thus  gaining  physical  strength,  while  the  genial  air  added  to  their  vigor.  Daily 
gymnastic  exercises,  bathing,  and  athletic  sports  promoted  that  beauty  and  fine  pro- 
portion of  the  figure  for  which  the  Greeks  are  noted,  and  which  are  shown  to  us  in 
their  sculpture. 

Their  surroundings  influenced  also  their  moral  character.  The  mountains  rose 
as  barriers  between  towns  and  so  fostered  the  spirit  of  independence.  The  sea 
stimulated  their  curiosity.  The  soil  was  easily  tilled,  but  required  sufficient  labor  to 
give  the  blessings  of  toil.  The  cUmate  was  soft  and  agreeable,  and  led  to  pleasure- 
loving,  but  was  not  enervating.  They  were  brave  and  athletic ;  their  Olympian 
games  were  the  greatest  the  world  has  ever  seen.  But  fine  as  was  their  bodily 
culture,  they  were  supreme  in  intellect.  The  Greek  language  is  rare  and  complete 
in.  structure,  and  Greek  literature  is  unsurpassed. 

The  myths  and  stories  of  Greek  life  are  of  great  interest,  and  show  how  the 
thought  of  the  nation  arose  and  developed.  And  along  with  their  intellectual 
culture  stands  their  wonderful  art.  Their  theatres  and  temples  are  still  the  admira- 
tion of  the  world,  and  their  sculpture  has  never  been  equaled.  The  prayer  of 
the  Greeks,  expressed  by  one  of  their  philosophers,  was,  "  Give  me  beauty  in  the 
inward  soul ;  and  may  the  outward  and  inward  man  be  at  one." 


DECORATION. 


187 


"As  a  whole,  the  people  of  Hellas  surpassed  all  nations,  ancient  and  modern,  in  one 
quality.  This  is  the  love  and  perception  of  a  mean  or  measure  in  all  things.  In  physical 
growth,  intellectual  pursuits,  and  moral  conduct  they  seemed  to  move  by  a  certain  rhythm. 
The  sense  of  measure  marks  their  philosophy,  their  poetry,  and  their  art,  and  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  more  of  measure  that  we  discover  in  their  religion,  their  thought,  and 
their  private  life,  the  nearer  we  shall  be  to  understanding  them."  —  Percy  Gardner. 

How  they  Lived. — The  life  of  the  Greeks  was  in  the  main  quite  simple, 
the  people  of  Athens  and  Sparta  especially  being  abstemious.  Fish,  vegetables  and 
fruit  formed  a  large  part  of  their  diet.  Homer  tells  us  of  the  continuous  fruitfulness 
of  the  country. 

"  Without  the  palace  court  and  near  the  gate, 

A  spacious  garden  of  four  acres  lay. 

A  hedge  enclosed  it  round,  and  lofty  trees 

Flourished  in  generous  growth  within,  —  the  pear 

And  the  pomegranate,  and  the  apple  tree 
'  With  its  fair  fruitage,  and  the  luscious  fig, 

And  olive  always  green.     The  fruit  they  bear 

Falls  not,  nor  ever  fails  in  winter  time 

Nor  summer,  but  is  yielded  all  the  year. 

The  ever  blowing  west  wind  causes  some 

To  swell,  and  some  to  ripen ;  pear  succeeds 

To  pear;  to  apple,  apple,  grape  to  grape, 

Fig  ripens  after  fig." 

Their  houses  were  very  simple,  as  they  were  occupied  but  little  of  the  time,  the 
people  living  largely  out  of  doors.  The  ground  floor  frequently  had  no  windows, 
and  the  exterior  of  the  houses  was  quite  plain.  A  plan 
is  given  here  which  the  historian  Curtius  accepts  as 
probably  representing  the  early  Greek  house.  The 
portico,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  plan,  was  thought 
by  them  quite  indispensable.  Beyond  the  portico  there 
was  one  square  room  with  the  hearth-stone  for  fire  in 

the  centre.      Later  the  house  became  more  complex,    

consisting  of  a  number  of  rooms  about  an  open  court. 

At  first  the  roof  was  flat,  but  later  was  raised  to  slant  each  way,  as  shown  in  the 
pediments  of  the  Parthenon  and  the  temple  of  Theseus  on  page  i6  of  the  drawing- 
book  (Seventh  Year  Book,  page  32). 

The  men  congregated  at  the  gymnastic  and  athletic  exercises,  at  the  baths,  at 
the  market-places,  at  the  public  games,  and  at  religious  ceremonies.     The  women 


188 


TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 


remained   at  home   much  of  the   time  directing  domestic  occupations,  but   they 
attended  the  Eleusinian  celebrations  and  took  part  in  the  Panathenaic  procession. 

The  handicrafts  were  carried  on  by  the  slaves,  although 
their  work  was  frequently  directed  by  men  from  the 
upper  classes. 

The  Greek  costume  was  also  of  a  simple  character, 
with  not  a  great  deal  of  difference  between  the  dress  of 
the  men  and  that  of  the  women.  The  principal  Greek 
dresses  were  the  cJiiton,  the  himatioti,  and  the  ch/amys. 
The  most  of  Greek  dresses  consisted  of  a  square  or 
oblong  piece  of  cloth,  made  up  by  folding,  with  or 
without  sewing,  into  a  suitable  shape.  A  Greek  costume 
is  easily  improvised.  The  following  directions  are  given 
by  Percy  Gardner  in  a  Manual  of  Greek  Antiquities. 

"  A  piece  of  square  or  oblong  cloth  or  linen  was  taken 
(Fig.  I,  Itnon),  and  doubled  over  at  the  line  ab  when  it  would 
present  the  form  aboft,  where  the  portion  am  is  double.  This 
was  again  doubled  at  the  line  cd  and  folded  backwards  so  as 
to  leave  the  flap  Imc  visible  (Fig.  2).  The  person  putting  it  on  would  now  stand  inside 
it  at  efhg  (Fig.  3)  and  fix  with  buckles  or  clasps  the  front  and  back  portions  together 
over  each  shoulder  at  e  and  /.  She  would  then  let  the  corners  ab,  and  c  fall  and  the 
whole  chiton  would  be  disposed  about  her.     The  flap  over  at  the  upper  part  of  the  body 


a 


m 


n 


cl 


0      no 


ah 


Im 


i 


no 


Fig.  I. 


Fig.  2. 


6"         k 

Fig.  3. 


d 


was  called  the  diplois.  The  left  side  of  the  body  cd  was  thus  properly  shielded,  and  the 
right  side  abno  was  comparatively  unprotected,  the  chiton  being  only  fastened  at  the 
shoulders  and  being  open  from  the  shoulder  to  the  ground.  For  a  remedy  to  this  defect  a 
girdle  was  used,  being  fastened  around  the  loins  of  the  wearer;  under  the  girdle  the  dress 
could  easily  be  drawn  so  as  to  overlap  and  to  hide  the  want  of  continuity.  Moreover,  as 
the  chiton  was  generally  long,  it  would  trail  on  the  ground  unless  raised  by  means  of  the 
girdle,  when  the  superfluous  length  would  fall  over  the  girdle  in  the  form  of  a  fold.    Some- 


DECORATION. 


189 


times  the  open  side  of  the  chiton  was  sewed  up,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Canephorae  of  the 
Erechtheum,  and  sometimes  in  addition  to  the  one  fastening  at  the  shoulder  others  were 
added  on  the  upper  arm. 

"  The  himation  was  worn  in  much  the  same  way  by  both  sexes,  by  women  as  the 
upper,  by  men  frequently  as  the  sole  garment.  It  consisted  of  a  large,  nearly  square 
piece  of  cloth,  doubled  over  {abed,  Fig.  4),  at  the  line  lin  so  as  to  be  oblong  {lined,  Fig.  5). 
This  was  then  taken  up  and  the  point  .i"  placed  on  the  left  shoulder,  when  the  remainder  zl 
was  gathered  together  and  thrown  over  the  back.  It  was  not  fastened  at  all,  but  held 
together  by  its  own  weight  and  by  the  arms. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


"Women  commonly  drew  the  himation  over  instead  of  under  the  right  shoulder 
and  turned  up  the  outer  fold  over  the  head  and  shoulders  to  form  an  ample  veil."' 

"The  chlamys,  which  was  originally  a  riding  and  war  cloak  of  the  Thessalians  and 
other  northern  races,  was  early  introduced  into  Greece  and  almost  entirely  superseded  the 
himation  as  a  cloak  for  young  men  and  for  men  on  active  business. 


Fig. 


"The  mode  of  wearing  the  chlamys  was  very  simple.  It  was  of  oblong  shape  and 
doubled  until  nearly  square,  as  in  the  engraving ;  nvt  thus  becomes  the  closed  side,  and  ab 
cd  the  open  one.  The  wearer,  standing  with  his  back  to  the  reader,  puts  his  head  through 
at  wf.  and  fastens  the  chlamys  at  e,  with  a  buckle  at  the  right  shoulder.     The  ends  would 


190 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


hang  down  or  flap  in  the  wind.  In  this  way  the  left  arm,  which  was  in  riding  naturally 
used  only  to  hold  the  reins,  would  be  entirely  covered,  but  the  right  quite  free  to  hold  whip 
or  lance ;  the  points  cd  would  hang  down  and  nearly  touch  the  ground." 


3oj>l]0c/««j 


In  t\ 


\ 


%m^' 


-pjcjicitiA- 


Vdtuati 


The  illustrations  of  Greek  sculpture  above  show  how  the  Greek  dress  was  worn. 
The  exquisite  sculpture  from  a  Greek  tomb,  on  page  i6  (Sixth  Year  Book,  page  32), 
also  shows  the  Hnes  of  the  drapery.  The  statues  6f  Sophocles  and  of  Pudicitia 
(Modesty)  show  how  the  himation  was  worn  by  men  and  women  respectively.  The 
Tanagra  figurine,  page  188,  shows  another  use  of  the  himation.  The  chlamys 
may  be  seen  as  worn  by  one  of  the  riders  in  the  Parthenon  frieze,  illustrated  on 
page  194. 


The  head  gear  and  the  foot  wear  were  as  simple  as  the  garments.  Among  the 
head  coverings,  a,  b,  and  d  are  called  pilos ;  g  and  h  are  Phrygian  caps,  and  e,  f, 
and  /  are  called  petasos,  the  winged  petasos  e  indicating  the  god  Hermes.  Fre- 
quently neither  head  nor  foot  covering  was  worn.      Sometimes  only  soles  were  worn 


DECORATION. 


191 


on  the  feet,  as  shown  in  the  left  half  of  the  illustration,  while  on  the  right  half 
simple  shoes  are  seen.     All  these  illustrations  are  taken  from  statues. 


The  furniture  was  also  quite  simple  ;  there  were  folding-stools  quite  hke  the 
camp-stools  of  to-day,  as  the  chairs  were  similar  to  chairs  of  the  present  time. 


The  Greeks  laid  great  stress  on  education  ;  it  took  up  minor  matters  (as,  for 
instance,  which  way  to  wrap  the  himation),  as  well  as  moral  training.  The  four 
essentials  were  grammar,  gymnastics,  music,  and  drawing.  One  writer  has  said, 
"They  regarded  education  as  a  training  for  right  living  rather  than  for  correct 
thinking." 

Of  Greek  art,  John  La  Farge  says  in  his  "  Artist's  Letters  from  Japan  "  :  — 

"  That  is  to  say,  that  they  too  often  do  not  look  to  the  end,  but  to  the  means,  while 
to  the  artist  the  means  are  a  mere  path,  —  as  with  the  Greeks,  whose  work  will  live,  even  if 
its  very  physical  existence  is  obliterated,  because  it  is  built  in  the  mind,  in  the  eternity  of 
thought.  So  Greek  art  existed,  and  has  lived,  and  lives,  the  most  flourishing  and  richest 
that  we  know  of,  —  with  less  to  represent  it  than  we  turn  out  daily.  So  it  lived,  when  it 
had  no  longer  anything  of  its  own  body  to  represent  it,  in  everything  that  was  done  in 
every  country  which  kept  its  lessons ;  and  still  lives,  wiUiout  examples  to  refer  to,  even  in 
the  verv  painting  of  to-day." 

Greek  Temples. — The  architecture  of  the  Greeks  is  the  finest  of  antiquity, 
exquisite  in  form  and  proportion,  simple,  and  harmonious.  The  most  beautiful 
example  was  the  Parthenon,  now  in  ruins,  situated  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens. 
The  citadel  of  a  Greek  city  was  called  an  acropolis.  It  was  usually  the  site  of 
the  original  settlement,  and  situated  on  an  eminence.    When  the  city  spread  beyond 


192 


TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 


its  early  limits,  the  acropolis  was  generally  cleared,  and  held  sacred  to  the  divinities 
of  the  people  and  their  temples. 

The  AcropoHs  of  Athens  is  a  high  rock,  rising  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
quite  abruptly,  having  a  flat,  oblong  summit  about  five  hundred  feet  wide  and 
one  thousand  feet  long,  which  could  be  approached  on  but  one  side,  through  the 
Propylsea,  or  gateway.  The  Propylsea  included  the  gate  itself  and  vestibules  before 
and  behind. 

Plan  of  the  Acropolis.  —  The  plan  of  the  Acropolis,  showing  the  position 
of  the  various  buildings,  is  given  below.  This  plan  will  aid  in  understanding  the 
different  buildings  seen  on  Plate  XIV. 

The  Acropolis, — 

"  —  whose  bright  brow  bound  with  dawn, 
Is  head  and  heart  of  Athens," 

was  approached  by  a  steep,  broad  flight  of  steps  divided  by  a  roadway,  and  leading 
to  the  Propylasa.    Just  without  the  Propylsea,  at  the  right,  stands  the  small,  delicately 


'0   0   10      30      so 


Plan  of  the  Acropolis. 


1.  Gate  known  as  that  of  BeuW  ; 

2.  Temple  of  Nike  Apteros; 

3.  The  Propylaea; 

4.  Terrace  walls; 


5.  Parthenon; 

6.  Foundation  of  an  old  temple  of 

Athene; 

7.  Erechtheion; 


8.  Museum  of  the  Acropolis 

(modern) ; 

9.  Old  unknown  building; 
10.    Columns  in  the  wall. 


proportioned  temple  of  Nike  Apteros,  the  wingless  victory.  Beyond,  on  the  height 
itself,  stood  the  magnificent  statute  of  Athene  Promachos,  fifty  feet  high,  whose 
helmet  and  spear  could  be  seen  at  sea.     At  the  right  stands  the  Parthenon,  built  in 


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DECORATION.  193 

the  simple  Doric  style,  the  crowning  glory  of  the  AcropoHs.  This  temple  was  com- 
pleted 438  B.C.  It  was  built  of  Pentelican  marble,  and  stood  on  the  highest  part 
of  the  Acropolis,  near  its  centre.  It  was  shattered  by  the  Turks  in  1687,  by  an 
explosion  of  gunpowder.  It  was  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-eight  feet  long, 
one  hundred  feet  wide,  and  sixty  feet  high.  It  was  surrounded  by  Doric  columns, 
eight  at  each  end,  and  seventeen  at  each  side,  counting  the  corner  columns  twice. 
It  was  the  central  point  for  the  great  festival  to  Athene,  for  it  contained  a  wonderful 
statue  of  that  goddess,  made  of  gold  and  ivory.  It  was  adorned  with  most  beautiful 
sculptures  and  ornaments. 

''Thus  Wisdom,  from  the  neighboring  Parthenon 
Down  on  the  Areopagus,  could  fix 
A  watchful  gaze  :  thus  from  the  rising  Pnyx 
,         The  Orator's  inspiring  voice  could  reach 
Half  o'er  the  City,  and  his  solemn  speech 
Was  as  a  father's  counsel  to  his  son." 

—  Richard  Monckton  Milnes. 

By  referring  to  the  plan  of  the  Acropolis,  page  192,  it  will  be  seen  that  one 
standing  just  inside  the  Propylsea,  and  looking  toward  the  Parthenon,  would  see  both 
the  end  and  side.  Its  place  on  the  Acropolis  seems  to  have  been  purposely  so 
chosen  that  the  first  view  obtained  after  entering  the  Propylsea  would  be  one  show- 
ing its  full  beauty. 

The  body  of  the  Greek  temple  was  called  the  cella.  The  cella  was  surrounded 
by  columns  (as  seen  in  the  illustration  of  the  temple  of  Theseus),  which  formed  the 
peristyle.  The  cella  of  the  Parthenon  was  ornamented  with  a  series  of  magnificent 
sculptures  in  low  relief,  running  around  the  upper  part  of  the  wall,  which  is  known 
as  the  Parthenon  frieze.  This  frieze  was  three  feet,  four  inches  high,  and  five  hundred 
and  twenty  feet  in  total  length.  This  series  of  sculptures  is  supposed  to  illustrate 
the  great  Panathenaic  processions.  Once  in  four  years  the  Athenians  made  a  grand 
procession  from  the  town  to  the  heights  of  the  Acropolis  in  honor  of  Athene  or 
Minerva,  the  goddess  of  art<-.wisdom.  A  beautiful  robe,  embroidered  by  maidens  of 
noble  birth,  as  well  as  other  offerings,  were  borne  to  Athene  in  this  procession.  The 
robe  was  displayed  to  the  people  as  the  sail  of  a  ship  which  ran  on  rollers,  and  carried 
priests  and  priestesses  who  went  to  participate  in  the  festival.  Citizens  bore  branches 
of  olives  ;  freedmen  and  barbarians  bore  branches  of  oak.  Oxen  were  led  to  be  sacri- 
ficed. Men  bearing  baskets,  women  bearing  jars,  joined  the  throng.  Chariots  and 
horsemen,  young  men  and  maidens,  priests  and  magistrates  and  old  men,  joined  in 
the  procession. 


194 


TE ACHE  It's  MANUAL. 


The  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  presents  a  wonderful  scene.  At  its  beginning  are 
twelve  gods  seated ;  a  procession  appears  from  each  side,  moving  toward  the  gods 
The  whole  frieze  is  beautiful  in  movement  and  beautiful  in  repose.  It  is  in  most 
delicate  relief,  the  highest  part  of  the  relief  being  but  little  more  than  two  inches. 

Characteristic  fragments  of  the  frieze  are  illustrated  here,  —  horses  and  their 
riders,  and  bearers  of  wine.  The  spirited  horses  of  the  Parthenon  frieze  have  never 
been  equaled  in  sculpture.  The  bearers  of  wine  show  more  quiet  action :  the 
drapery,  the  beautiful  form  of  the  vases,  the  marvellous  composition  of  line,  —  great 


variety,  no  two  forms  being  just  the  same,  yet  beautiful  harmony,  —  all  contribute 
to  the  beauty  of  the  whole. 

A  large  number  of  fragments  of  the  frieze,  amounting  in  all  to  about  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  in  length,  were  obtained  by  Lord  Elgin  in  1816,  and  transported 
to  England.  They  were  finally  purchased  by  the  nation  for  thirty-six  thousand 
pounds,  and  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Ictinus  was  the  architect  of  the  Parthenon ;  to  Pheidias,  the  greatest  sculptor 


DECORATION. 


195 


the  world  has  ever  seen,  was  due  the  surpassing  beauty  of  the  sculptures  and  orna- 
ment. Fergusson  says  that,  "  for  intellectual  beauty,  for  perfection  of  proportion, 
for  beauty  of  detail,  and  for  the  exquisite  perception  of  the  highest  and  most  recon- 
dite principles  of  art  ever  applied  to  architecture,  it  stands  utterly  and  entirely  alone 
and  unrivaled." 


///'■.#}* 


The  characteristics  of  a  people  are  surely  manifested  in  their  art. 

"Scarcely  any  of  the  moral  power  of  Greece  depended  upon  her  admiration  of  beauty 
or  strength  in  the  body.  The  power  of  Greece  depended  upon  practice  in  military  exercise, 
involving  continual  and  s-evere  ascetic  discipline  of  the  senses ;  on  a  perfect  code  of  mili- 
tary heroism  and  patriotic  honor ;  on  the  desire  to  live  by  the  laws  of  an  admittedly  divine 
justice,  and  on  the  vivid  conception  of  the  presence  of  spiritual  beings. 

"The  laws  of  self  restraint  of  Greek  art  are  very  marvellous.  Its  peace  of  heart  and 
contentment  in  doing  a  simple  thing,  with  only  one  or  two  qualities  restrictedly  desired 
and  sufficiently  attained,  are  a  most  wholsome  education."  —  John  Ruskin. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  Acropolis  stood  the  Erechtheion,  an  Ionic  temple  of 
irregular  form  and  of  great  beauty.     By  referring  to  the  plan  of  the  Acropolis,  page 


196 


TEACHERS  MANUAL. 


192,  the  plan  and  location  of  the  Erechtheion  will  be  seen.  Two  illustrations  of  this 
temple  are  given  on  Plate  XV.  The  front  portico  had  six  columns.  The  south 
portico  is  known  as  the  Caryatid  porch,  because  it  is  supported  by  the  figures  of  six 
maidens  called  Caryatids.  The  illustration  shows  very  plainly  the  restorations  that 
have  been  made.  Surmounting  this  porch,  there  remains  a  fragment  of  the  beautiful 
moulding  illustrated  on  page  208. 

In  the  Erechtheion  was  preserved  a  wooden  block  which  was  really,  to  the 
Athenians,  the  most  holy  image  of  Athene,  fabled  to  have  fallen  from  heaven.  The 
oldest  and  often  the  most  sacred  statues  of  the  Greeks  were  rude  idols  of  wood. 
Here  was  the  wonderful  olive  tree  which,  according  to  the  legend,  was  produced  by 
the  goddess,  at  the  time  of  the  contest  for  the  soil,  as  a  specimen  of  her  power,  and 
which  sent  forth  a  fresh  shoot  two  cubits  long  in  one  day  after  it  had  been  burned 
down  by  the  Persians.  Here,  also,  was  the  snake  sacred  to  Athene,  to  which  a  honey 
cake  was  carried  by  the  priests  every  month.  Here  was  the  golden  lamp  made  by 
Kallimachos,  the  Art  Refiner,  that  was  filled  but  once  a  year,  and  kept  perpetually 
burning.  A  bronze  palm  tree,  placed  over  the  lamp,  and  reaching  to  the  roof,  car- 
ried off  the  smoke. 


W^y&\:SGr^^^^ 


..  .!tii  11  ''  li  Wm.'li     <> 


Temple  of  Theseus. 


The  temple  of  Theseus,  the  Theseion,  shows  the  form  of  the  Greek  temple 
more    perfectly  than   the  Parthenon,  as   it   is   in    a   less    ruined    condition.     This 


DECORATION.  197 

temple  is  situated  on  a  small  hill  at  the  north  of  the  Acropolis.  It  was  built 
about  465  B.C.,  and  is  the  best  preserved  of  all  the  Greek  temples.  The  illus- 
tration shows  plainly  the  simple  Doric  columns,  the  triglyphs,  the  metopes,  and  the 
pediment.  The  columns  are  fluted  ;  the  entablature,  the  broad  mass  resting  on  the 
columns,  is  divided  horizontally  into  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice.  The  architrave 
is  the  plain  face  seen  in  the  illustration.  The  frieze  is  divided  into  triglyphs  and 
inetopes,  the  triglyphs  being  tablets  with  three  channels,  and  the  metopes  being  the 
spaces  between  the  triglyphs.  The  cornice  is  above  the  frieze,  and  the  pediment  is 
the  triangular  space  enclosing  the  end  of  the  roof  and  crowning  the  front.  The 
metopes  and  pediments  were  ornamented  with  sculptured  figures.  The  temple  of 
Theseus  is  only  about  half  as  large  as  the  Parthenon,  being  one  hundred  and  four 
feet  long  by  forty-five  feet  wide. 

The  beautiful  order  seen  in  all  Greek  architecture  and  ornament  is  visible  here, 
the  triglyphs  and  metopes  being  placed  according  to  the  columns.  Greek  temples 
are  beautiful,  not  only  in  simplicity,  proportion,  and  harmony,  but  also  in  variety  of 
light  and  shade,  caused  by  the  arrangement  of  mouldings,  cornices,  and  columns. 

The  Greeks  studied  proportion  most  closely  and  carefully.  Investigation  by 
Mr.  Penrose  and  others  shows  that  there  was  a  scale  of  proportions  advancing 
toward  equality  carried  out  in  a  temple.  These  proportions  concerned  such 
relations  as  length  to  width,  width  to  height,  solid  to  open  space,  width  of  a  column 
to  the  distance  between  the  columns.  All  these  were  in  harmonic  relations,  differincr 
only  by  the  approach  to  equality.  Harmony  between  the  parts  was  attained  through 
the  use  of  a  module  —  a  unit  of  measure  —  which  governed  all  the  dimensions  and 
proportions  of  a  building. 

To  overcome  the  effects  of  contrast  and  optical  illusion,  the  long  horizontal 
lines  were  slightly  curved,  and  the  columns  were  given  a  slight  swelling  or  etitasis 
in  the  middle.  These  modifications  were  so  subtile  that  for  a  long  time  they 
were  not  discovered,  and  the  secret  of  the  repose  and  harmony  of  the  whole  was 
unrecognized, 

Plutarch  says  concerning  the  Greek  temples  :  ^  — 

''  For  every  one  of  thpse  that  were  finished  up  at  that  time,  seemed  then  to  be  very 
ancient  touching  the  beauty  thereof;  and  yet  for  the  grace  and  continuance  of  the  same  it 
looketli  at  this  day  as  if  it  were  but  newlv  done  and  finished,  there  is  such  a  certain  kind 
of  flourishing  freshness  in  it,  which  letteth  that  tlie  injury  of  time  cannot  impair  the  sight 
thereof;  as  if  every  of  those  foresaid  works  had  some  living  spirit  in  it,  to  make  it  seem 
young  and  fresh,  and  a  soul  that  lived  ever  which  kept  them  in  their  good  continuing 
state." 

1  Translated  by  Sir  Thomas  North. 


198 


TEACHER  S  MANUAL. 


And  it  has  proved  true  that  the  architecture  of  the  Greeks  is  Hving,  that  its 
harmony  and  restraint  have  continued  to  control  and  influence  hfe  down  through 
the  ages,  and  that  its  "beauty  goes  forth  to  hght  the  world  forever." 

Choragic  Monuments.  — There  were  in  Athens  many  interesting  monuments ; 
among  them  were  those  known  as  choragic  monuments.  In  Athens  theatric  repre- 
sentations had  the  character  of  a  national  and  religious  institution.  The  chorus 
played  a  large  part  in  these  representations.  Prizes  were  offered  to  stimulate  the 
work  of  the  chorus.  A  bronze  tripod  was  given  to  the  choregos,  whose  chorus 
exceeded  the  others  in  their  representation.  The  victorious  choregos  erected  a 
monument  on  which  to  place  the  tripod,  and  a  whole  street,  called  the  Street  of 
Tripods,  was  Uned  with  these  emblems. 

The  most  celebrated  choragic  monument  is  that  of  Lysicrates,  which  dates  from 
335-334  B.C.  It  is  illustrated  on  the  opposite  page.  Its  whole  height  was  only 
thirty-four  feet.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest  authentic  examples  of  the  Corinthian  order. 
An  illustration  of  the  capital  of  the  columns  will  be  found  on  page  201.  A  front 
view  of  the  monument  and  of  half  the  acroterium  which  surmounts  the  monu- 
ment, as  well  as  an  illustration  of  one  of  the  scrolls  on  its  roof,  will  be  found  on 
page  209. 

Greek  Orders. — There  were  in  Greece  three  architectural  orders,  —  the 
Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  the  Corinthian.     While  the  general  typical  structure  in  these 


Doric  Capital  —  Parthenon. 


Ionic  Capital  —  Erechtheion. 


three  orders  is  the  same,  yet  the  details  peculiar  to  each  are  markedly  different.  Of 
all  these  details  the  columns  are  the  most  distinctly  representative  of  the  character 
of  the  order,  for  in  the  column  the  difference  of  style  is  most  manifest. 

The  Doric  columns  are  short,  massive,  closely  ranged  together,  and  have  no 


PLATE    XV. 


V* 


■•I"  /|        1   ■   V.   »  -   ■  T  '  V     ._    -»  '' ■.■■»\v-" -^^i'  ?c^  *,'' 

ftp**"?  f ■-" — •*■        ,  .  .       '  8"  if.     '%riai'" 


^'T***-^'.:' 


Temple  of  Erechtheus 


•I.' 


a. 


M^maitS3f 


Porch  of  Caryatids,  from  the  Temple  of  Erechtheus. 


DECORATION. 


199- 


^ 


WJ 


W^--^, 


-'^^'^-. 


Monument  of  Lysicrates. 


200  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

base.  The  shaft  is  fluted,  having  twenty  channels ;  it  tapers  upward,  being  con- 
siderably smaller  at  the  top  than  at  the  base,  and,  Uke  the  columns  of  the  other 
orders,  swells  in  a  gentle  curve  in  the  middle,  called  the  ejitasis. 

The  Ionic  column  is  more  slender,  diminishes  less  rapidly  than  the  Doric  column, 
and  rests  upon  a  base  having  several  mouldings.  The  Ionic  column  is  fluted  in 
twenty-four  channels. 

The  Corinthian  column  is  still  more  slender  than  the  Ionic ;  like  the  Doric  and 
Ionic  columns,  the  shaft  is  fluted,  and,  like  the  Ionic  column,  it  rests  upon  a  base. 

But  while  the  columns  of  these  different  orders  differ  decidedly  in  proportion, 
they  differ  still  more  in  their  capitals.  The  Doric  capital  is  simple  in  the  extreme  : 
it  consists  of  a  low,  broad  echinus,  upon  which  the  square  block  of  the  abacus  rests. 
The  Ionic  capital  is  wholly  different.  The  echinus  of  the  Doric  capital  is  replaced 
by  a  rounded  moulding,  generally  the  ovolo,  or  egg  and  dart  moulding,  and  the 
abacus  seems  to  have  become  elongated  into  a  broad,  cushion-like  band,  the  ends  of 
which  roll  spirally  into  volutes. 

The  Corinthian  capital  presents  some  wholly  new  elements.  It  generally  retains 
the  volutes  ;  but  they  spring  from  below,  and  meet  at  the  angles  of  the  abacus. 
The  acanthus  leaf  here  appears,  and  is  a  constant  characteristic  of  the  Corinthian 
style.  Between  the  capital  and  the  shaft,  there  is  usually  an  astragal,  as  seen  in  the 
capital  from  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Miletus,  on  page  201. 

While  each  order  had  a  very  definite  character,  yet  each  was  susceptible  of  great 
variety.  Compare  the  simple  Ionic  capital  from  the  temple  of  Nike  Apteros,  page 
201,  with  the  ornate  capital  from  the  Erechtheion,  page  198.  Each  has  all  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  Ionic  capital.  Compare  also  the  two  Corinthian 
capitals.  Each  has  the  rich  acanthus  decoration  and  the  four  volutes  below  the 
abacus,  yet  they  differ  decidedly  in  general  efl"ect. 

The  characteristics  of  the  two  temples,  the  Parthenon  and  the  Erechtheion, 
may  be  seen  in  the  capitals  of  the  two  structures,  illustrated  on  page  198.  The 
Doric  capital  of  the  Parthenon  has  in  itself  breadth,  simplicity,  and  majesty. 
The  Ionic  capital  of  the  Erechtheion  has  more  elegance,  more  variety,  more 
ornamentation. 

Vases. — The  leading  figure  on  Plate  XVI.,  as  well  as  on  the  drawing-book 
page,  is  that  of  a  vase.  The  Athenian  potters  were  the  most  skilled  in  Greece. 
They  used  a  soft  clay,  of  a  pinkish  color  in  its  natural  state,  which,  in  baking, 
turned  to  an  orange-gray,  generally  called  red.  This  color  was  frequently  intensified 
by  artificial  means.  The  name  red,  as  used  in  the  classification  of  Greek  vases,  is 
applied  to  the  colors  ranging  from  a  yellow-orange  to  a  red- orange  gray.    The  vases 


DECORATION. 


201 


\J\U\JVJ 


r 

\ 

) 

c 

( 

) 

L 

V 

■* 

IONIC, 
TEMPLE  OF   NIKE  APTEROS. 


CORINTHIAN. 
TEMPLE  nf  APOLLO  AT  MILETUS 


CORINTHIAN, 
CHORAGIC  MONUMENT  OF  LTSICRATES 


ORNAMENTED  TORUS 


FROM  THE  TEMPLE   OF    NEMESIS  AT  RHAMNUS 


ANTEFIXE, 
FROM  THE  PARTHENON  AT  ATHENS. 


ACANTHUS  LEAf 
CAPITAL  OF  THE  TOWER  Of    THE   WINDS. 


ANTEFIXE, 
ffiOM  THE  TEMPLE  OF  ARTEMIS  AT  ELEUSIS.      \ 


Examples  of  Greek  Capitals  and  Ornament. 


202  teacher's  manual. 

were  made  upon  a  wheel,  and,  when  the  ioxrci  was  completed,  were  polished  to 
remove  the  finger-marks  in  the  clay. 

The  decoration  was  then  added,  varying  in  method  according  to  the  style  of 
the  vase,  that  is,  whether  black  figured  or  red  figured.  The  red-  or  light-figured 
work  was  done  by  drawing  lightly  the  pattern  in  outline,  and  then  painting  in  the 
background.  In  the  black-figured  patterns,  the  most  of  the  work  was  done  with 
one  stroke  of  the  brush.  In  either  style  the  work  bears  marks  of  utmost  freedom. 
Imagine  the  deep  realization  of  the  elements  of  beauty,  as  well  as  the  trained  hand, 
that  Greek  decorative  artists  must  have  had  to  be  able  to  produce  these  beauti- 
ful results.  Their  work  is  not  only  free  from  the  painful  and  barren  hardness  of 
mechanical  accuracy,  but  is  also  imbued  with  that  perfection  of  grace  that  comes 
only  from  a  thorough  feeling  for  the  beauty  to  be  expressed. 

The  x'\thenian  potters  learned  to  recognize  the  value  of  simplicity  as  an  element 
of  dignity.  The  number  of  their  forms  was  not  large ;  the  ornamentation  was 
restrained,  leaving  broad,  plain  spaces  ;  and  the  colors  were  simply  two,  —  black  and 
red.  Some  of  the  forms  were  almost  spheric  ;  but  in  the  general  type  the  greatest 
width  was  a  little  above  the  middle,  the  body  of  the  vase  being  ovoid. 

In  the  black-figured  vase,  the  figures  and  ornaments  were  painted  ;  in  the  red- 
figured  vase,  the  background  only  was  painted  black,  leaving  the  figures  and  orna- 
ment of  the  color  of  the  clay.  The  vase  upon  page  213,  and  the  very  beautiful 
vase  in  outline  and  in  smaller  size  below  on  the  drawing-book  page  (illustrated  on 
Plate  XVI.),  are  red-figured  vases.     Of  the  latter  vase  Lau  says  :  — 

"The  high  figure  field  corresponds  to  the  form  of  the  vase;  the  noble  forms  quietly 
standing  there  seem  to  have  grown  with  the  body  of  the  vase.  A  most  beautiful  balance 
is  obtained  by  their  distribution  at  the  right  and  left,  while  the  lower  part  and  the  neck  are 
intentionally  kept  subordinate.  The  lower  part  of  the  body  rises  directly,  with  flattened 
outline,  from  the  simple  rounded  base ;  therefore  the  lower  band  is  made,  not  of  pointed 
but  of  uniformly  broad  leaves.  In  the  same  way  the  neck  springs  directly  and  sharply 
from  the  body. 

"The  horizontal  handles  allow  the  palmette  ornament  of  the  handle  surface  to  be 
carried  up  and  continued  on  the  narrowing  form  of  the  vase.  All  is  noble  simplicity  and 
most  perfect  harmony." 

Jahn  speaks  of  this  vase  as  one  of  a  collection  of  vases  found  in  excavations  on 
Etruscan  grounds  by  Lucien  Bonaparte,  now  in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich. 

The  art  of  the  Greeks  is  as  conspicuously  shown  in  their  vases  as  in  their 
sculpture,  architecture,  and  ornament.  Elegant  in  form  and  beautiful  in  decoration, 
they  awaken  the  keenest  pleasure  in  those  who  appreciate  and  enjoy  the  beautiful, 
and  tell  most  truly  of  the  wonderful  civilization  to  which  the  Greeks  attained. 


PLATE   XVI. 


Greek  Vase,  in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich. 


DECORATION.  '      203 

Pupils  will  be  interested  to  know  something  of  the  uses  for  which  the  vases 
shown  on  the  drawing-book  page  were  originally  intended.  The  large  jar,  shown  in 
outline,  and  again  just  below  with  its  decorative  groups  of  figures,  is  an  amphora, 
made  to  hold  oil,  wine,  honey,  or  sometimes  grain.  The  broad,  shallow  vessel  at  the 
left  of  the  outlined  jar  is  a  kylix,  used  as  a  drinking  cup  or  bowl.  The  vase  with  the 
trefoil-shaped  top,  shown  at  the  right  of  the  large,  outlined  amphora,  is  an  oinocho'e, 
or  pitcher  for  serving  wine.  The  small  jug  printed  in  black  is  an  aryballos  for  oil. 
The  other  forms  are  variations  of  the  lekythos,  which  was  an  oil  or  perfume  jug,  and 
was  made  very  narrow  at  the  throat  that  the  liquid  might  escape  only  drop  by  drop. 

A  study  of  Greek  vases  in  art  museums  will  be  of  great  value  to  those  who  wish 
to  learn  of  Greek  art.  Seek  at  every  stage  to  connect  the  work  of  the  school  with 
the  masterpieces  of  the  world ;  carry  each  exercise  out  beyond  the  everyday  course 
of  life ;  awaken,  bring  to  consciousness,  and  stimulate  the  creative  power  of  the 
pupil,  by  showing  all  that  is  possible  of  the  great  things  of  art. 

THE   VASE   PAINTER. 

Inspired  the  Athenian  works  !  With  gentle  emphasis,  he  marks 

With  skilful  brush  and  eager  soul,  In  scroll  or  fret  or  laurel  leaf 

On  these  rare  forms,  he  paints  The  bands  that  separate  or  shrine 

The  deeds  of  mortals  and  of  gods,  The  story  he  has  wrought. 

With  grace  of  line  and  draperied  fold  And  playing  now,  his  fancy  leads 

That  emulate  the  strong  sweet  curves  His  brush  with  firm,  swift  strokes 

And  subtile  harmonies  of  part  and  whole  To  homage  pay  in  decorative  guise 

To  which  the  vase  itself  gives  birth.  To  body,  neck,  and  handl'*  of  the  vase. 

Adorning  them  by  scroll  on  scroll. 
And  radiating  lobes  of  wondrous  grace 
In  red  on  black  or  black  on  red, 
And  making  glorious  the  clay. 

Polychromatic  Ornament.  —  It  is  more  difficult  to  determine  the  range 
and  nature  of  colors  used  by  the  Greeks  than  in  the  case  of  the  Egyptians.  Much 
of  the  coloring  of  the  Greeks  is  found  on  fragments  of  marble  that  have  long  been 
exposed  to  the  weather.  It  is  considered  quite  certain,  however,  that  Greek  surface 
decoration  was  generally  colored,  and  later  discoveries  seem  to  indicate  that  color 
was  also  used  in  sculpture.'    Color  seems  to  have  been  used  upon  the  upper  part  of 

1  Mr.  Edward  Robinson,  the  curator  of  the  Greek  Department  of  flie  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston, 
and  the  author  of  the  descriptive  catalogue  of  the  fine  collection  of  casts  in  that  Museum,  has  made  a 
special  presentation  of  casts  of  famous  statues,  colored  according  to  the  latest  research. 


204  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

a  Greek  temple  more  than  on  the  lower.      Imagine  the  Parthenon  with  harmonious 
coloring  added  to  its  beauty  of  form  and  proportion  ! 

"  The  temple,  low  and  broad  and  beautiful,     "  Guilloche  of  braids  with  jewels  set. 
Serenely  stands  in  all  its  wealth  And  frets  of  interlacing  bands 

Of  column,  frieze,  entablature.  Of  blue  and  red  on  golden  field, 

"  With  triglyph,  metope,  and  pediment  "  Soft  curving  ovolo  with  egg  of  blue 

Full  sculptured,  and  discreetly  crowned  Contoured  with  gold,  and  dart  incarnadine, 

With  stately  antefix  of  blue  and  red,  Harmonious  on  ground  of  green  ; 

"And  rich  on  fillet,  band,  and  cornice  "And  then  with  radiant,  lightsome  grace, 

Bright  color  woos  the  sight  The  anthemion  border  gayly  broiders  well 

In  ornament  of  purest  curve.  In  blending  hues  the  architrave, 

"  Echinus,  bold  and  simply  marked,  "  Now  spreading  wide,  or  in  more  slender  form 

With  astragal  of  beads  and  pearls  Adorning  now  the  mellow  tone 

Of  shining  gold  on  ground  of  red.  Of  marble  rare,  hewn  from  Pentelicus, 

"  Smooth  gliding  into  involuting  scrolls 
Seductive,  carrying  on  the  eye  and  soul 
In  chords  and  melodies  of  color." 

The  colors  used  by  the  Greeks  were  few  and  used  with  much  refinement ;  they 
were  red,  blue,  green,  brown,  black,  and  gold.  These,  however,  do  not  seem  to 
have  been  crude  reds,  blues,  and  greens,  but  rather  to  have  been  so  softened  and 
inclined  toward  each  other  in  hue  as  to  produce,  when  combined,  a  most  satisfying 
harmony.  They  used  much  less  green  than  the  Egyptians,  and  a  great  deal  of  red 
and  orange-gray. 

The  Exercise.  —  A  capital  or  a  vase  may  be  drawn  on  the  drawing-book 
page.  It  will  generally  be  better,  however,  to  draw  the  outline  vase.  It  is  of  very 
beautiful  proportion  and  curvature.  The  effort  to  reproduce  it  affords  fine  aesthetic 
training.  This  has  been  very  satisfactorily  produced  in  colored  paper  —  the  red- 
grays  and  the  orange-grays  —  with  painted  bands  of  black.  Of  course,  any  of  the 
others  can  be  reproduced  if  desired. 

As  a  supplementary  exercise,  let  the  pupils  study  the  vase  forms  on  the  draw- 
ing-book page  as  examples  of  beautiful  proportion  and  fine  curvature,  and,  with 
these  to  lead  imagination  in  pleasant  ways,  design  other  vase  forms  of  their  own. 
Naturally,  no  two  pupils  will  produce  identical  results.  Encourage  each  one  to 
express  his  own  feeling,  but  try  to  keep  the  forms  simple.  On  comparing  an  over- 
elaborated  outline  with  outlines  like  those  on  the  drawing-book  page,  the  pupil  will 
usually  agree  that  the  complicated  and  fantastic  form  would  soon  look  common- 


DECORATION.  205 

place  and  tiresome.  Lead  the  thought  also  toward  the  material  to  be  used  and  the 
adaptation  of  form  to  purpose.  A  vase  'ntended  for  holding  flowers  must  have  a  base 
of  such  proportions  as  to  keep  the  whole  in  balance  even  when  sprays  or  branches 
spread  widely  in  one  or  another  direction  at  the  top.  A  vase  intended  simply  as  a 
thing  of  beauty  in  itself  need  provide  only  for  the  secure  balance  of  its  own  weight. 
Encourage  them  to  visit  potteries  that  they  may  really  see  how  vases  are  made  and 
may  understand  better  what  shapes  should  be  used. 

Let  the  drawing  of  the  vase  contours  be  done  in  even  gray  lines  without  any 
expression  of  light  and  shade. 

If  desired,  some  preliminary  experimental  work  might  be  done  by  paper 
cutting,  —  folding  a  bit  of  paper  in  two  and  cutting  both  sides  of  the  vase  at  once. 
This  often  helps  pupils  to  see  the  form  in  mass,  and  it  is  done  so  quickly  that  a 
great  many  experimental  cuttings  can  be  made  in  two  or  three  minutes. 

If  time  allows,  or  if  additional  time  can  be  given  by  some  pupils  in  the  class, 
let  bands  of  ornaments,  suitable  for  the  designed  vases,  be  drawn  on  a  separate 
sheet  of  paper.  Pupils  will  enjoy  completing  their  idea  in  this  way.  It  will  be 
better  not  to  have  the  pattern  inserted  on  the  vase-drawing,  as  the  modifications  of 
such  patterns  through  perspective  present  problems  of  too  great  difficulty  to  be  suc- 
cessfully handled  by  boys  and  girls  of  this  grade. 

Books  that  may  be  Studied.  —  Some  idea  of  Greek  history  is  essential  to  an 
adequate  appreciation  of  Greek  ornament.  Grote's  "History  of  Greece"  is  fine,  but 
voluminous.  The  titles  of  a  few  shorter  books,  giving  a  good  general  survey  of  Greek 
history,  may  be  useful. 

The  Story  of  Greece.      James  A.  Harrison.      (From  the  series   77^1?  Story  of  the 

Nation. ) 
Pericles  and  the  Golden  Age  of  Athens.    Evelyn  Abbott.    (From  the  series  Heroes  of 

the  jVation.) 
The  Age  of  Pericles.     W.  W.  Lloyd. 
Plutarch^s  Lives. 

A  History  of  Greek  Art.     F.  B.  Tarbell. 
A  History  of  Sculptur^.     Marquand  and  Frothingham. 
The  Home  Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.     H.  Bliimner. 
A  History  of  Architecture.     A.  D.  F.  Hamlin. 

As  an  accompaniment  to  these,  some  books  on  mythology  are  mentioned  :  — 

Manual  of  Mythology.     Maxima  Collignon. 

Olynipos  :  Tales  of  t lie  Gods  of  Greece  and  Rome.     Talfourd  Ely. 

The  Gods  of  Oly>npos.     A.  H.  Petiscus.     With  preface  by  Jane  Harrison. 

The  Age  of  Fable.     Thomas  Bulfinch.     Edited  by  Edward  Everett  Hale. 


206  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

For  further  examples  of  Greek  decorative  art,  the  following  list  will  be  useful 
to  those  having  access  to  art  libraries  :  — 

Gramiimr  of  Ornament.     Owen  Jones. 

Die  Gra)nmatik  der  Onia/nent.     E.  Jacobsthal. 

Polychromatic  Ornament.     A.  Racinet. 

History  of  Ancient  Art.     G.  Parrot  and  C.  Chipiez. 

An  Investigation  of  the  Principles  of  Creek  Architecture.     F.  C.  Penrose. 

Greek  Polychromy     L.  Fenger  and  J.J.  Hittorflf. 

A  few  books  are  here  suggested  for  those  who  are  interested  in  further  study 
on  Greek  vases.     They  are  all  illustrated. 

Catalogue  of  Creek.,  Etruscan.,  and  Roman  Vases.     Edward  Robinson. 
Die  Griechischen  Vasen.     Theodor  Lau. 

Greek  Vases:  their  system  of  form  and  decoration.     Selections  from  Lau. 
Painted  Creek  Vases.     James  Millingen. 
Creek  Vase  Painting.     Jane  Harrison. 

Articles  on  Creek   Vases.     W.  P.  P.  Longfellow.     Scribner''s  Magazine^  April  and 
May,  1888. 

Language.  —  This  exercise  presents  remarkable  opportunities  for  interesting 
the  pupils,  and  inciting  them  to  reading  for  themselves,  thus  obtaining  material  for 
written  language  exercises.  Some  of  the  books  already  given  will  be  very  much 
enjoyed  by  pupils.  A  few  others,  more  especially  adapted  for  younger  readers,  are 
added. 

Three  Creek  Children.     A.  J.  Church.     With  illustrations  after  Flaxman  and  the 

Antique. 
Heroes  and  Kings.     A.  J.  Church. 
Stories  from  Herodotus.     A.  J.  Church. 
Herodotus  for  Boys  and  Girls.     Edited  by  J.  S.  White. 
Plutarch  for  Boys  and  Girls.     Edited  by  J.  S.  White. 

Family  Flight  over  Egypt  and  Syria.     Edward  Everett  Hale  and  Susan  Hale. 
Greek  Heroes.     Charles  Kingsley. 
Tanglewood  Tales.     Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
A  Wonder-book  for  Boys  and  Girls.     Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
Zigzag  Journeys  in  Classic  Lands.     Hezekiah  Butterworth. 
Boy  Travellers  in  the  Levant.     T.  W.  Knox. 


DECORATION.  207 


BOOR  8,  PAGE   7.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  23, 

DECORATION. 

Examples.  —  Historic  Ornament.     Greek.     Space  Relations. 
Art.  —  Rendering.     Expression  of  Color. 

[The  pupil  studies  the  examples  on  the  dra-wing-book  page,  chooses 
one  or  more  examples,  plans  for  their  enlargement,  and  repro- 
duces them  enlarged  in  the  book,  or  after  studying  the  examples, 
makes  a  design  of  his  own,  using  Greek  elements  or  elements  of 
his  own  design,  seeking  for  beauty  of  line  and  of  space  relations, 
and  showing  color  by  brush  and  ink,  if  desired,  or  by  water- 
color  or  by  colored  paper.] 

The  Examples.  —  The  illustrations  on  this  page  show  a  variety  of  Greek 
ornament.  The  two  upper  borders  show  the  use  of  the  rosette ;  the  second 
of  these  borders  shows  Egyptian  influence,  as  will  be  seen  if  compared  with  the 
Egyptian  borders  on  page  151  and  also  in  Book  7,  page  10;  Sixth  Year  Book, 
page  10. 

The  other  border  and  the  centre  pieces  show  the  use  of  the  anthemion.  See 
page  161.  Notice  how  the  characteristic  proportional  relation  and  the  curvature 
are  retained,  although  the  proportion  of  the  whole  is  changed  to  suit  the  need  of  the 
space  to  be  filled. 

Character  of  Ornament. — The  ornament  of  such  a  people  was  befitting 
its  architecture.  Of  exquisite  proportion  and  curvature,  it  showed  intellectual 
beauty  of  the  highest  type. 

It  did  not  depend  on  symbolism,  like  Egyptian  ornament,  nor,  like  Gothic, 
upon  direct  inspiration  from  nature,  as  well  as  on  symbolism ;  it  seemed  rather  to 
present  the  ideal. 

In  the  guilloches  below  the  capitals  on  page  201,  the  flowing  character  of 
Greek  curvature  is  shown.  These  are  most  beautiful  studies  of  line.  The  two 
antefixes  at  the  lower  part  of  the  same  plate  show  that  wonderful  sense  of  propor- 
tional distribution  which  was  so  strong  an  element  in  Greek  ornament. 

The  antefixes,  with  the  acanthus  leaf  between  them,  are  instinct  with  that  life 
that  comes  from  radiation.  These  three  examples  show  also,  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  the  use  of  the  scroll.  The  scrolls  in  the  Parthenon  antefix  manifestly  tend 
to  the  Ionic  volute,  while  the  scroll  in  the  antefix  from  the  Eleusinian  temple  as 
manifestly  tends  to  the  continuous  scroll  which  occurs  on  the  roof  of  the  monument 
of  Lysicrates  ;  see  page  209.  And  the  scroll  tendency  is  again  seen  in  the  acanthus 
leaf  from  the  Tower  of  the  Winds. 


208 


teacher's  manual. 


The  Greeks  did  not  use  ornament  as  the  Egyptians  did,  with  a  lavishness  which 
somewhat  approached  savagery.  There  was  always  a  restraint,  a  reserve.  The 
Greeks  knew  the  value  of  unornamented  spaces.  See  how  sparsely  the  rosettes  are 
placed  on  the  doorway  of  the  Erechtheion,  illustrated  below.  Yet  there  was  no 
meagreness.  The  sparseness  of  the  rosettes  is  counterbalanced  by  the  full  ovolo 
moulding  above,  with  its  accompanying  astragal,  and  by  the  rich  anthemion 
decoration  crowning  the  whole.  The  harmony  of  Greek  architecture  lived  again  in 
the  beauty  and  distribution  of  its  ornament. 


From  the  Erechtheion. 


The  character  of  the  ornament  of  the  Erechtheion  can  be  seen  further  on 
the  Ionic  capital  on  page  201  and  in  the  ornament  on  page  209.  The  sculptured 
ornament  of  the  Greeks  seems  to  have  been  slightly  more  elongated  and  more 
angular  than  their  painted  ornament,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparing  pages  201  and 
209  with  page  213.  In  the  sculptured  ornament  there  is  much  openness  and  light- 
ness, while  the  painted  ornament  seems  to  possess  more  fulness  of  curvature 
and  of  mass. 

The  mouldings  used  on  the  capitals  and  bases,  friezes  and  cornices  of  build- 


DECORATION. 


209 


rROMTHE  CHORAGIC  MONUMffjTOf  LYSICRATES M »TKEN3 


OKJHO 


FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF  NEMESIS  AT  RHAMNUS 


FROM  ANTAE    TEMPLE  «t  ELfuSiS 


FROM  'H[  TEMPLE  Of  NFMESIS  «i  Bmamnus 


CHORAGIC 

MONUMENT 


laioooaoo;:  _ 


DF  LYSICRATES. 


^^  FROM   THE    TEMPLE   OF  ERECTHCUS    »'    ATHENS 

Examples  of  Greek  Ornament. 


210 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


ings  played  an  important  part  in  Greek  decoration ;  for  the  Greeks  considered 
most  carefully  the  effect  of  light  and  shade,  as  well  as  of  form  and  decoration.  The 
Greek  mouldings  are  therefore  a  very  interesting  subject  of  study.  Allusion  can  be 
made,  however,  to  but  a  few. 

There  is  a  little  apparent  confusion  in  terms  in  Greek  ornament.  The  various 
mouldings  had  their  different  names ;  and,  as  certain  mouldings  were  generally 
decorated  with  certain  ornaments  especially  suitable  for  them,  the  same  name  is 
sometimes  appUed  indiscriminately  to  the  moulding  and  to  the  ornament. 


Mouldings. 


) 


7 


Astragal. 


Echinus. 


OvOLO. 


The  astragal  is  a  small  moulding,  semicircular  in  profile,  used  as  a  bead 
between  other  mouldings,  or  to  mark  the  junction  between  the  capital  and  shaft  of  a 
column.  A  larger  moulding  of  the  same  form,  used  at  the  base  of  a  column,  is 
called  a  torus. 

The  echinus  is  a  rounding  moulding  or  cushion,  on  which  the  abacus  of  a 
Doric  capital  rests.     Its  profile  is  delicately  convex,  having  a  slightly  sweUing  curve. 

The  ovolo  is  a  moulding  having  a  profile  of  reversed  ovoid  curves,  from  which 
it  takes  its  name. 

Decoration. 


Astragal. 


GulLLOCHE. 


Echinus  or  Ovolo. 


The  place  of  the  astragal  moulding  is  sometimes  filled  by  a  bead  or  pearl 
ornament,  which  is  like  the  astragal  in  profile.  This  bead  or  pearl  ornament,  some- 
times sculptured  and  sometimes  painted,  is  frequently  called  the  astragal. 

The  echinus  and  ovolo  mouldings  are  often  decorated  with  the  egg-and-dart  orna- 
ment ;  hence  this  ornament  is  sometimes  called  the  echinus  and  sometimes  the  ovolo. 

The  guilloche  is  an  ornament  of  interlacing  curved  bands,  like  a  braid. 
It  occurs  in  the  very  simple  form  given  above,  as  well  as  in  more  elaborate 
forms.     See  page  201. 


DECORATION. 


211 


Greek  ornament  shows  us,  however,  the  influence  of  previous  civilizations.  The 
chief  forms  of  Greek  ornament  —  the  wave  scroll,  the  fret,  the  guilloche,  the  ovolo, 
the  astragal,  the  anthemion  —  had  nearly  all  appeared  in  Egyptian  work,  and  may  be 
traced  in  cruder  forms  in  the  illustrations  of  Egyptian  ornament. 

The  Greeks  received  Egyptian  ornament,  but  they  refined  and  transfigured  it. 
Compare,  for  instance,  the  Egyptian  and  Greek  treatment  of  the  wave  scroll.  Figs. 
I  and  2  are  Egyptian ;  Figs.  3  and  4  are  Greek. 


Fig.  I. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig. 


The  Egyptian  use  of  the  scroll  was  generally  rope-like,  coil  upon  coil,  while  with 
the  Greeks  it  was  ever  flowing,  like  the  waves  of  the  sea. 

Egyptian  ornament,  though  highly  symbolic,  was  yet  severe  and  constrained  ; 
much  of  their  ornament  is  dominated  by  straight  lines  or  sharp  angles,  and  variation 
in  proportion  was  not  marked.  Greek  ornament,  although  not  possessing  the  charm 
of  symbolism,  yet  reaches  a  higher  beauty  than  the  Egyptian  through  subtility  of  pro- 
portion and  curvature.  This  subtility  of  proportion  existed  not  only  in  the  parts  of 
a  figure,  but  also  in  spacing  and  distribution. 

It  is  also  interesting  to  see  that  Greek  ornament  very  rarely  combines,  in  one 
figure,  straight  and  curved  lines.  See  pages  201,  209,  and  213.  A  Greek  pattern 
may  be  made  up  entirely  of  straight  lines,  as  in  the  fret,  or  entirely  of  curves,  as  in 
the  anthemion.  This  is  readily  seen  in  page  213,  which  shows  painted  ornament 
only. 

In  Egyptian  ornament  the  very  sharp  angle  resulting  from  the  lotus  petals 
abounds,  as  seen  above  in  Fig.  2,  also  in  pages  151,  155  ;  in  Greek  ornament  such 
very  sharp  angles  are  rarely  seen,  and  almost  never  in  succession.  In  the  ovolo,  or 
egg-and-dart  pattern  as  it  is  more  familiarly  called,  the  effect  of  the  sharp  angle 


212 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


of  the  dart  is  softened  by  the  oval  curve  of  the  egg.  The  angles  that  occur  in  the 
ornament  of  the  Erechtheion  are  modified  by  the  curved  sides,  or  by  the  openness 
of  the  angles. 

Radiation  appears,  and  is  considerably  developed,  in  Egyptian  ornament,  as  will 
be  seen  on  page  155.  The  examples  given  below  show  how  the  comparatively  crude 
radiation  of  Egyptian  ornament  was  refined  and  subhmated  by  the  Greeks.  The 
anthemion  is  the  subject  of  the  exercise  for  Book  7,  page  13;  Sixth  Year  Book, 
page  13,  and  its  development  from  the  Egyptian  is  specially  considered  on  pages 
158-161. 

Examples  of  Radiation. 


Egyptian  Lotus  Arrangement. 


Greek  Antefix. 


Greek  Anthemion. 


Symbolic  as  it  is,  Egyptian  ornament  seems  to  be,  after  all,  more  external  than 
essential,  while  Greek  ornament  carries  the  spirit  of  glad  and  lightsome  growth  in 
lines  of  eternal  beauty. 

The  Exercise. — The  examples  given  in  the  drawing-book  will  be  found 
also  on  page  213.  Two  of  the  borders  show  the  Greek  disk.  Variations  of  the 
anthemion  are  seen  in  the  other  examples  ;  these  will  be  very  interesting  for  sketches 
in  connection  with  the  exercise.     Any  of  these  ornaments  may  be  copied,  enlarged. 

As  so  much  of  this  work  was  by  the  brush,  and  therefore  in  masses  of  color 
rather  than  in  outline,  a  brush  reproduction  of  it  is  extremely  satisfactory,  and  is 
recommended  where  school  conditions  allow  it.  The  brush  allows  great  freedom, 
and  leads  to  graceful  results  as  well  as  breadth  of  effect.  The  brush,  however,  can- 
not take  the  place  of  the  pencil ;  each  has  its  own  peculiar  fitness  and  excellences, 
and  each  has  its  own  technique.  The  use  of  colored  paper  is  also  extremely  satis- 
factory for  this  ornament.     The  colors  used  should  be,  as  a  general  thing,  in  the 


DECORA  TION. 


213 


USMgJSl 


0^0 


1S\ 


Greek  Painted  Ornament. 


214 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


grays,  preferably  the  red,  orange,  and  yellow  grays  (assortment  F)  for  Greek  orna- 
ment, as  more  nearly  approaching  the  color  of  the  burnt  clays.  The  green,  blue, 
and  violet  grays  (assortment  FF)  will  not,  however,  be  inappropriate. 

Greek  ornament  should  be  studied  closely  for  its  elements  of  beauty  before 
attempting  to  reproduce  it.  And  then  its  reproduction  in  color  or  by  drawing 
should  be  a  means  for  its  further  study.  The  purpose  of  these  exercises  in  Greek 
ornament  is  not  to  secure  a  reproduction  of  some  example,  but  to  lead  the  pupil 
through  study  and  drawing  to  a  feeling  for  its  beauty.  Freedom  in  drawing  is 
therefore  essential,  and  mechanical  drawing  has  no  place  here.  Michel  Angelo  said, 
"An  artist  must  have  his  necessary  tools,  not  in  the  hand,  but  in  the  eye." 

And  Ruskin  says  (referring  to  free-hand  drawing),  that  the  human  hand  "is 
the  most  perfect  agent  of  material  power  existing  in  the  universe,"  and  that  the 
highest  art  calls  for  "  the  action  of  the  hand  at  its  finest,  with  that  of  the  heart  at  its 
fullest." 

Or,  pupils  may  design  ornament  for  borders  or  to  fill  squares,  using  some  of  the 
elements  in  the  examples,  or  they  may  design  their  own  elements.  Lead  the  pupils 
to  study  the  beauty  of  the  past,  but  bring  their  work  as  near  to  the  present  as  pos- 
sible. Some  designs  from  brush  elements,  in  which  distribution  and  balance  have 
been  well  considered,  are  given  below. 


f 


r^m 
WW9 


THE   SUBJECT   OF   CONSTRUCTION. 

Throughout  this  course  of  instruction,  pupils  are  led  not  only  to 
observe  the  facts  of  existing  forms,  but  also  to  study  simple  prac- 
tical needs  in  everyday  life  and  to  think  out  ways  of  meeting  such 
needs  through  constructive  design.  In  the  earlier  books  of  the 
series  the  thought  was  directed  chiefly  to  the  special  social  need  to 
be  reached  in  each  case  rather  than  upon  the  technical  convention 
involved. 

From  the  present  point  onwards  it  is  desired  to  lead  pupils' 
thought  higher  and  farther  back  into  constructive  problems,  helping 
them  to  discover  and  grasp  certain  great,  underlying  principles  of 
construction  which  pertain  to  all  industrial  creation, —  fitness  of 
form  to  purpose,  fitness  of  material  to  both  form  and  purpose, 
serviceableness  in  use,  appropriate  beauty  in  proportion,  in  line, 
and  in  finish  expressed  in  industrial  convention.  This  technical 
knowledge,  along  with  the  development  of  reasoning  power,  secures 
practical  efficiency  in  industrial  creations, 

215 


216  teacher's  manual. 

BOOK  8,  PAGE  8.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  24 

CONSTRUCTION. 

Type  Solids.  —  Facts  of  Form.     Working-drawings.     Conventions. 

Art.  —  Working-drawings.     Manner  of  Drawing. 

[The  pupil  studies  the  -working-dra -wings  on  the  drawing-book  page, 
reads  them,  thinking  of  the  facts  of  form  expressed,  thinks  out 
and  sketches  the  working-draw^ings  of  one  or  more  of  the  sim- 
pler type  solids,  or  a  simple  object,  plans  for  placing  the  work- 
ing-drawing of  one  of  these  on  the  drawing-book  page,  and 
draws  it  in  the  book,  seeking  for  accuracy  in  the  w^ork.] 

Working-drawings.  —  A  working-drawing  \%  the  expression  of  the  facts  of 
form  necessary  for  the  complete  understanding  of  the  structure  of  an  object. 

A  view  is  an  expression,  in  two  dimensions,  of  all  the  facts  of  an  object  that 
can  be  discovered  from  a  single  point  of  observation.  Views  and  working-drawings 
are  seen  on  page  217. 

Explanation  of  Illustrations.  —  Fig.  i.   Front  and  top  views  of  a  basin. 

Fig.  2.  Working-drawing  of  a  pail  —  front  and  top  views.  The  handle  of  the 
pail  is  drawn  separately,  to  prevent  confusion. 

Fig.  3.   Working-drawing  of  an  awl  —  front  and  end  views. 

Fig.  4.  Working-drawing  of  a  rolling-pin  —  top,  end  and  section  views.  A  par- 
tial section  of  the  rolling-pin  is  given  in  the  front  view,  as  that  is  all  that  is  necessary 
to  show  the  construction  of  the  handles.  Notice  that  the  shank  around  which  the 
handles  turn  is  not  sectioned,  and  that  the  section  lines  of  the  handle  and  of  the 
rolling-pin  run  in  opposite  directions.  This  method  is  employed  when  the  section 
gives  two  cut  surfaces  coming  together. 

Fig.  5.  Front,  end,  and  bottom  views  of  the  hammer,  with  a  vertical  section  of 
the  head  and  a  cross  section  of  the  handle. 

Value  of  W^orking-drawings.  —  Lead  the  children  to  an  understanding 
of  the  value  of  working-drawings.  (See  Construction,  page  38.)  Through  such 
drawings  the  designer  of  an  ocean  steamship  or  a  yacht  shows  his  idea  of  the  lines  of 
strength,  speed,  and  beauty,  and  the  details  necessary  to  its  construction.  It  is 
through  the  medium  of  such  drawings  that  some  of  the  greatest  thoughts  of  the 
civilized  world  are  expressed,  and  great  industrial  creations  like  the  Brooklyn  and 
St.  Louis  bridges  are  brought  into  existence. 

Bring  to  the  pupils  blue-prints  and  well-finished  working-drawings  which  have 
been  used,  to  show  them  more  fully  the  meaning  of  the  work  they  are  about  to 
undertake.     If  examples  of  the  objects  made  from  these  drawings  can  be  shown. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


217 


r 4 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


t-li'-*. 


218 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


this  work  will  be  more  effective.     Frequently  the  pupils  can  bring  these  drawings 
from  shops  they  are  allowed  to  visit. 

A  "  field-day  "  might  be  given  to  visiting  a  local  manufactory  or  shop,  where 
working-drawings  may  be  seen  in  the  hands  of  the  workmen  and  possibly  pupils 
might  be  shown  how  the  workmen  use  them. 

Preparation  for  Working-drawings.  —  Most  of  the  pupils  using  this 
book  will  already  have  had  considerable  practice  in  reading  and  making  working- 
drawings  of  objects  and  type-forms,  but  a  review  will  probably  be  necessary  to 
recall  the  conventions.  Blackboard  drawing,  by  teacher  or  pupils,  contrasting  the 
appearance  and  the  views  of  some  common  objects,  or  of  the  type  models  will 
refresh  the  memory  upon  the  conventions  of  working-drawings.    (Illustrated  below.) 


O 

b 


d 


y//, 


q- 


016"- 


'^^\    /%> 


Fig.  I. 


Fig.  2. 


1.  The  arrangement  of  views.     See  Fig.  2. 

2.  Lines  of  the  object.     Fig.  i. 

a.  Full  line  for  visible  edges  or  outlines. 

b.  Long-dash  line  for  invisible  edges  or  outlines. 

c.  Half-tinting  or  section  lines. 

3c    Helping  or  construction  lines.     Fig.  i. 

d.  Short-and-long-dash  line  for  centre  line. 

e.f.    Light,  full  line  or  short-dash  line  for  extension  or  connecting  lines. 

g.  Light  broken  line  with  arrowheads  and  figuring  for  dimension  lines.  The 
points  of  the  arrowheads  show  the  limit  of  the  dimension.  The  dimension 
line  should  be  as  long  as  the  edge  or  the  surface  figured,  so  that  the  arrow 
points  may  exactly  indicate  the  extreme  limits  of  the  edge  or  surface  in 
question.  Feet  and  inches  expressed  as  in  duodecimals^  e.g.y  i'  6"  (two 
feet,  six  inches).     Line  of  fraction  horizontal ;  z.%\. 


K 


CONSTRUCTION. 


219 


good  method  for  class  work  in  reading  working-drawings  is  to  have  the  pupils 
draw  the  appearance  from  a  working- drawing.  Making  a  working-drawing  from  an 
appearance-drawing  is  also  good  practice. 

The  type-forms  are  at  this  stage  so  famiUar  that  a  working-drawing  of  any  one  of 
them  should  at  once  suggest  the  model  itself  so  clearly  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil  that  he  can 
represent  it  pictorially.   For  instance, 


:t 


X 


if  the  teacher  draws  upon  the  board 

the  front  and  top  views  of  a  vertical 

square  prism,  facing,  the  pupil  should 

be  able  to  make  a  picture  of  it  or 

draw  its  appearance   in    that  same 

position.     If    the   views   show    the 

prism    turned,    or   in    a    horizontal 

position,  he  should  be  able  to  express  the  fact  pictorially.     This  is  a  very  graphic 

way  of  "  reading  "  vievvs  or  telling  what  they  mean,  and  after  a  brief  review  of  this 

sort  the  pupil  will  probably  be  able  to  draw  from  memory  views  of  the  type-forms, 

and  this  work  may  easily  be  extended  to  include  familiar  objects. 

Doubtless,  in  many  of  the  pupils'  first  attempts  at  giving  views  of  objects  they 
will  show  that  their  ideas  of  working-drawings  are  confused  with  ideas  of  pictorial 
or  appearance-drawings,  but  the  wise  teacher  will  utilize  their  failures  to  help  them  to 
a  better  understanding.  Let  the  appearance-drawing  be  made  on  the  board,  and  the 
pupils  try  to  point  out  where  in  that  drawing  they  can  read  the  necessary  facts  of  form 
and  size,  and  they  will  see  at  once  how  inadequately  and  inaccurately,  for  purposes 
of  construction,  those  facts  are  expressed.  From  the  picture  of  the  vertical  cylinder, 
for  example,  height  and  width  from  left  to  right  can  be  ascertained  with  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy,  but  the  width  from  back  to  front  cannot  be  definitely  learned, 
and  there  is  nothing  in  the  drawing  to  tell  the  actual  shape  of  the  top  face.  '  It 
may,  however,  be  clearly  shown  in  a  top  view,  with  the  front  view  properly  placed 
to  express  the  other  necessary  facts.  The  same  method 
applied  to  common  objects  helps  pupils  to  see  in  what  way 
the  story  must  be  told  to  the  workman.  They  enjoy  this  trans- 
lating from  one  kind  of  drawing  into  the  other,  and  the  de- 
mand which  it  makes  upon  them  for  a  clear  mental  concept 
helps  to  develop  their  power  of  abstract  thought.  Another 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  this  power  may  be  gained  by 
giving  them  a  drawing  of  one  view  of  a  familiar  object  as  a  starting  point,  and 
letting  them  draw  the  other  views. 

The  top  vievvs  of  many  cylindric,  conic,  and  hemispheric  objects,  which  we 


220 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


know  are  circular  in  section,  are  readily  inferred  from  the  front  views.  The  top 
view  of  a  basin,  cup,  dipper,  can,  funnel,  bowl,  or  vase  would  be  expressed  by  one 
or  more  circles,  varying  in  diameter  according  to  the  profile  of  the  object  as  given 
in  its  front  view.  The  front  views  of  such  objects  as  those  illustrated  below  (Figs. 
1-3),  and  the  statement  that  the  tops  and  bases  are  circular,  would  be  enough  to 


Fig.  I. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


tell  a  pupil  what  the  top  views  must  be.  The  front  view  of  a  rolling-pin  (see  p.  217) 
recalls  at  once,  to  the  mind  of  any  one  familiar  with  it,  its  cylindric  form,  and  its 
end  view  could  easily  be  given.  When  the  end  view,  as  in  the  rolKng-pin,  or  the 
top  view,  as  in  a  bowl  or  jar,  shows  only  circles,  it  is  frequently  omitted  in  practice. 
It  seems  advisable,  however,  that  pupils  of  this  grade  should  continue  to  use  it,  for 
the  sake  of  clearly  expressing  the  mental  concept  of  form.  The  blackboard  should 
be  used  very  freely  in  all  of  this  work. 

Preparation  for  the  Lesson.  —  Lead  the  pupils  to  observe  and  bring  in 
freehand  pictorial  sketches  or  working  drawings  of  as  many  different  mechanical 
appliances  and  articles  for  domestic  use  as  possible.  Many  will  be  able  to  go 
to  shops  for  this  purpose.     Others  can  bring  in  sketches  of  tools  and  household 

utensils. 

"  Nothing  useless  is,  or  low ; 

Each  thing  in  its  place  is  best." 

These  sketches  may  not  be  accurate,  but  as  an  expression  of  individual  observa- 
tion, and  as  material  for  future  work,  they  will  be  valuable.    Through  the  attempt  to 


^  CONSTRUCTION.  221 

make  them,  tne  cliildren  grow  into  a  more  sympathetic  intelligence  and  knowledge 
of  the  thought  that  has  been  given  to  the  making  of  even  common  things.  This 
work  touches  the  home  life  of  the  children  and  gives  the  teacher  an  opportunity  to 
engage  the  interest  of  the  parents,  so  that  the  spirit  and  effect  of  the  work  may  be 
broadened.  If  these  home  sketches  are  not  discarded,  but  are  made  the  subject 
of  a  brief  criticism  with  explanation  of  different  points,  they  will  be  useful  to  all 
the  members  of  the  class. 

The  pupils  should  study  and  read  the  working- drawings  on  page  8  of  the 
drawing-book.  Lead  them  to  verify  all  they  read  in  these  drawings  by  referring  to 
the  models  from  which  they  are  made,  and  so  to  appreciate  the  beautifully  direct 
language  of  the  working-drawing  known  as  "  conventions."  These  conventions  are 
illustrated  on  page  218. 

If  it  is  desired  that  this  constructive  work  shall  be  instrumental  rather  than 
freehand,  the  teacher  is  referred  to  pages  224-235  for  suggestions  as  to  teaching  the 
use  of  instruments  and  geometric  problems.  It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  freehand 
drawing  is  still  continued  in  construction.  This  should  always  be  the  case.  Facility 
in  making  freehand  sketches  for  working-drawings  is  essential  for  every  draughtsman 
who  makes  drawings  for  constructive  purposes.  It  is  often  necessary  to  make  rapid 
drawings,  freehand,  in  shops  or  other  places  where  instruments  cannot  be  made 
available  —  the  careful  instrumental  drawing  being  made  when  more  time  is  at  com- 
mand, and  in  a  place  where  instruments  can  be  profitably  used. 

Illustrations  on  the  Drawing-book  Page.  —  Triaf?gu/ar  Prism.  —  The 
width  from  back  to  front  of  the  triangular  prism  is  shown  in  the  top  view  and  in  the 
side  view  by  the  dotted  lines. 

Holloiu  Cylinder.  Sections. — The  front  and  top  views  of  the  hollow  cylin- 
der give  clearly  the  facts  of  its  form,  the  thickness  of  the  wall  being  shown  in 
the  front  view  by  the  dash  lines  which  represent  invisible  edges.  To  make  this  still 
more  clear,  a  "  sectioned  "  view  is  given  at  the  right.  Imagine  the  cylinder  cut  in 
halves  from  top  to  bottom.  The  back  half  would  present  the  appearance  shown  in 
the  sectioned  view,  the  oblique  lines  or  sectioning  representing  the  cut  surface. 

Hollow  Flanged  Cylinder.  —  In  the  front  view,  the  part  at  the  left  is  shown  in 
full,  and  that  at  the  right  is  drawn  in  section.  The  top  view  is  drawn  in  full,  as  if 
the  front  view  were  not  sectioned. 

Suggestions  to  Pupils  for  Study  of  Illustrations.  —  Ciibe.  —  Place  a  cube  in  the  different 
positions  indicated  by  the  drawings  at  the  top  of  the  page  of  the  drawing-book. 
Where  is  the  height  of  the  cube  shown  ?  The  width  from  left  to  right  ?  The  width 
from  back  to  front  ?  How  long  must  the  dimension  lines  be?  Notice  in  the  draw- 
ing the  arrowheads. 


222  teacher's  manual. 

Triangular  Prism.  —  In  the  drawing  of  the  triangular  prism,  which  view  tells  you  that  it  is 
the  triangular  prism?  If  it  were  a  square  prism,  what  would  the  top  view  be  ?  Where 
is  the  height  indicated?  The  width  from  left  to  right?  The  width  from  back  to 
front  ?  Place  your  model  with  one  of  its  oblong  faces  vertical  and  facing  you.  Draw 
its  top  and  front  views  on  the  blackboard.  What  dimensions  are  shown  in  the  top 
view  ?     What  invisible  edge  should  be  represented  in  the  front  view  ? 

Hexagonal  Prism.  —  In  the  drawing  of  the  hexagonal  prism  where  is  the  width  of  the 
oblong  faces  indicated  ?  Which  face  is  facing  you  ?  Turn  the  model  at  right  angles 
to  the  position  indicated  in  the  drawing,  still  keeping  it  vertical.  How  many  faces 
must  you  show  in  the  front  view  of  the  model  in  that  position  ?  What  must  be 
their  width  from  left  to  right  ?  What  view  would  give  you  the  width  of  the  model 
from  left  to  right  ?     Which  view  would  you  draw  first  ? 

Cylinder.  —  Study  the  views  of  the  hollow  cylinder  to  see  if  you  can  find  there  all  the 
facts  of  form  and  dimension.  For  what  is  the  centre  line  used  ?  What  is  the 
meaning  of  the  heavy  dash  lines  in  the  front  view  ?  Notice  how  clearly  the  thickness 
of  the  wall  is  indicated  in  the  sectional  view  shown  at  the  right.  Sections  are 
often  used  to  show  details  of  construction  which  would  not  be  clear  otherwise. 

Hollow  Flanged  Cylinder.  —  What  is  the  model  shown  in  the  drawing  at  the  right  ? 
How  is  it  sectioned  ? 

Suggestions  to  Pupils  for  Drawing.  —  Choose  the  model  and  the  position  in  which 
it  is  to  be  placed.  Sketch  the  views  necessary  to  show  all  the  facts  of  the  model, 
using  the  conventions  correctly.  Study  the  space  on  the  drawing-book  page. 
Sketch  the  views  of  the  model  again,  studying  for  the  best  arrangement  of  the 
drawing  for  the  page.  Sketch  all  lines  lightly,  and  finish  the  drawing  with  the 
required  conventions. 


Additional  Exercises.  — The  pupils  will  have  learned  in  the  working- 
drawings  of  type  forms,  some  things  to  apply  in  the  drawing  of  common  objects. 
Suggest  certain  objects,  involving  similar  principles.  A  mallet,  a  hammer,  or  a 
rolling-pin  would  be  good  illustrations  of  the  use  of  sectional  views  in  showing  the 
details  of  construction  in  the  making  and  joining  of  the  handles.  (See  illustrations, 
page  215.) 

Whatever  is  chosen  as  a  suitable  object,  the  pupils  should  be  led  to  see  the 
adaptation  of  its  form  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  In  the  hammer,  for 
instance,  the  length  and  size  of  the  handle  must  be  sufficient  to  balance  the  head. 
The  size  and  proportion  of  the  head  should  be  suited  to  the  work  it  has  to  do.  A 
large,  heavy  head  is  necessary  for  large  nails,  while  the  head  of  a  tack  hammer 
should  be  rather  long  and  slender  to  hit  a  small  tack  without  pounding  the  fingers. 

The  handle  of  a  roUing-pin  is  admirably  formed  to  fit  the  hand,  while  its  curved 
outline  is  as  pleasant  to  see  as  it  is  to  grasp. 


CONSTBUCTIOJS^. 


223 


Encourage  pupils  to  feel  that  if  the  object  which  they  draw  is  not  pleasing, 
they  may  make  in  their  drawing  such  changes  as  would  render  it  more  useful  and 
more  beautiful.  Keep  constantly  in  mind  the  thought  that  fitness  to  purpose  is 
the  great  essential  in  the  making  or  the  designing  of  any  object,  and,  when  that  is 
secured,  beauty  of  proportion  and  outline  must  be  considered. 

BROOKLYN   BRIDGE. 

No  lifeless  thing  of  iron  and  stone, 

But  sentient,  as  her  children  are, 
Nature  accepts  you  as  her  own, 

Kin  to  the  cataract  and  the  star. 

She  marks  your  vast,  sufficing  plan. 

Cable  and  girder,  bolt  and  rod. 
And  takes  you,  from  the  hand  of  man, 

For  some  new  handiwork  of  God. 

You  thrill  through  all  your  chords  of  steel 

Responsive  to  the  living  sun  ; 
And  quickening  in  your  nerves  you  feel 

Life  with  its  conscious  currents  run. 

Your  anchorage  upbears  the  march 

Of  time  and  the  eternal  powers. 
The  sky  admits  your  perfect  arch, 

The  rock  respects  your  stable  towers. 

—  Chas.  G.  D.  Roberts,  in  Atlantic  Monthly. 


224  teacher's  manual. 


THE   USE  OF   INSTRUMENTS. 

InstrumentSo  —  A  knowledge  of  the  use  of  instruments,  and  facility  in  using 
them,  are  indispensable  to  every  mechanical  draughtsman.  As  the  work  in  con- 
struction grows  more  complicated,  the  necessity  arises  for  the  use  of  instruments  in 
order  to  obtain  very  accurate  work  with  great  readiness.  Two  instruments  —  the 
compasses  and  the  rule  —  are  introduced  with  this  book.  This  exercise  gives  pupils 
an  opportunity  for  obtaining  a  Uttle  facility  in  handling  these  instruments  before 
endeavoring  to  use  them  in  working  problems.  It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  free- 
hand drawing  is  still  continued  in  construction.  This  should  always  be  the  case. 
Facility  in  making  free-hand  sketches  for  working-drawings  is  essential  for  every 
draughtsman  who  makes  drawings  for  constructive  purposes.  In  many  cases  a  free- 
hand drawing  is  all  that  is  needed.  In  other  cases,  it  is  frequently  necessary  to 
make  rapid  drawings,  free-hand,  in  shops  or  other  places  where  instruments  cannot 
be  made  available,  —  the  careful  instrument-drawing  being  made  when  more  time  is 
at  command,  and  in  a  place  where  instruments  can  profitably  be  used.  Make  these 
points  clear  to  pupils  before  beginning  the  use  of  instruments. 

The  use  of  the  instruments —  compasses  and  rule  —  should  be  carefully  taught 
and  drilled  upon  at  the  start.  The  pencils  used  in  instrumental  work  should  be 
harder  than  those  used  in  free-hand  work.  Learning  to  keep  the  hard  pencil  well 
sharpened,  to  hold  it  erect  when  marking  points  or  ruling  lines,  and  to  use  it  either 
lightly  or  more  firmly,  is  an  important  part  of  the  first  steps  in  this  work.  Learning 
to  handle  the  rule  deftly  and  noiselessly,  to  lift  it  as  Uttle  as  possible,  to  take  as 
many  measures  as  convenient  without  moving  it,  to  measure  by  it  with  precision, 
and  to  avoid  using  the  "  end  inch,"  is  important  in  order  to  secure  rapid,  thought- 
ful, and  accurate  work. 

Before  attempting  any  work  with  compasses,  the  class  should  be  made  some- 
what familiar  with  their  appearance  and  use  in  the  hand  of  a  teacher.  Compasses 
are  used  to  describe  circles  and  arcs,  and  to  set  off  distances.  They  have  a  head 
and  two  legs.  In  describing  a  circle  or  an  arc,  the  compasses  are  held  by  the  head, 
the  point  of  one  leg  is  fixed,  the  compasses  are  turned,  and  the  point  of  the  other 
leg  describes  a  circle  about  the  fixed  point.  It  is,  of  course,  essential  that  the 
distance  between  the  two  points  shall  remain  the  same  while  the  circle  is  being 
described.  A  way  to  hold  the  compasses  without  changing  the  angle  between  the 
legs  must  be  found. 


THE   USE  OF  INSTRUMENTS. 


225 


Examine  the  head  of  the  compasses.  It  is  cylindric,  having  two  plane  faces 
and  a  curved  face.  If  the  head  is  held  by  its  two  plane  faces,  the  grasp  will  never 
change  the  direction  of  the  legs.  If  the  head  is  held  by  the  curved  face,  as  begin- 
ners are  very  apt  to  hold  it,  the  pressure  of  the  grasp  is  likely  to  close  the  compasses 
more  or  less,  and  of  course  spoil  the  circle  or  arc. 

For  describing  a  circle  or  arc,  the  plane  faces  of  the  head  should  be  grasped 
easily  with  the  thumb  and  second  finger,  the  first  finger  resting  on  the  curved  face 
of  the  head.  This  is  the  position  for  beginning  (see  Fig.  i).  Practice  pupils  in 
simply  taking  hold  of  the  compasses  properly.  Be  sure  that  every  pupil  has  the 
right  grasp.  Time  spent  in  this  practice,  when  the  compasses  are  first  put  into  the 
hands  of  pupils,  will  be  time  saved  in  the  end. 


Fig. 


Fig.  2. 


In  describing  the  circle,  there  should  be  a  slight  (and  but  a  slight)  pressure  on 
the  fixed  point,  to  keep  it  in  place.  The  compasses  should  be  so  placed  that  the 
pencil  point  will  be  at  the  left  of  and  below  the  centre ;  that  is,  so  that  a  line  con- 
necting the  points  would  be  at  about  an  angle  of  45°  to  a  horizontal  line.  Then  the 
head  is  rolled  between  the  thumb  and  fingers  on  the  ball  of  the  thumb,  the  first 
finger  gradually  taking  the  place  of  the  second,  until  finally,  when  the  circle  is  fully 


226  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

described,  the  position  is  that  seen  in  Fig.  2.  This  movement  should  be  carefully 
studied  and  practised  until  a  circle  can  be  drawn  with  one  sweep  of  the  instrument. 

While  practising  the  use  of  the  compasses,  geometric  terms  may  be  recalled. 
When  the  metal  point  of  the  compasses  is  fixed  on  the  paper,  for  the  purpose 
of  describing  a  circle  or  an  arc,  the  point  where  it  is  fixed  is  said  to  be  taken  as  a 
centre.  The  distance  between  the  metal  point  and  the  pencil  point  is  then  called 
a  radius.  "Take  any  radius,"  means  open  the  compasses  more  or  less.  "Take  a 
radius  of  i""  (one  inch),  means  open  the  compasses  so  that  the  distance  between 
the  points  is  i ".  This  will  give  practice  in  taking  measures  from  the  rule  with  the 
compasses,  which  should  be  held  perpendicular  to  the  rule.  "  Take  any  point  as  a 
centre,"  means  fix  the  metal  point  on  the  paper  or  board.  "  Take  C  as  a  centre," 
means  fix  the  metal  point  at  the  point  marked  C.  Having  explained  these  phrases, 
let  pupils  practice  describing  single  circles  and  concentric  circles  on  practice  paper. 
Limit  them  somewhat  as  to  centre  and  radius. 

Exercises.  —  With  a  radius  equal  to  the  margin  desired,  and  the  corner  of  the 
sheet  of  paper  as  a  centre,  describe  a  quadrant,  the  ends  of  which  shall  touch  the 
adjacent  edges  of  the  paper.  With  these  points  as  centres,  and  the  same  radius, 
draw  the  intersecting  arcs  which  will  give  the  marginal  corner.  The  space  within 
the  margin  may  be  divided  into  six  rectangles,  for  the  following  exercises  :  — 

1 .  Finding  the  centre  of  a  rectangle.     The  intersecting  point  of  the  diagonals  will  be  the 

centre. 

2.  Concentric  circles,  first  finding  a  centre  as  above. 

3.  Semicircle,  Diameter,  Chord,  Arc,  Radius. 

The  figure  ABDFE  is  a  circle  —  a  plane  figure  bounded  by  a  curved  line  called  a  circum- 
ference, every  point  of  which  is  equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called  the  centre. 
Any  line,  as  CD,  passing  from  the 
centre  to  the  circumference,  is  called 
a  radius  —  the  plural  form  is  radii. 
A  line,  as  EF,  passing  through  the 
centre  of  the  circle  and  terminating  in 
the  circumference,  is  called  a  diameter. 
Haifa  circle,  as  GIH,  is  called  a  semi- 
circle. Any  part  of  a  circumference,  as 
JKL,  is  called  an  arc ;  a  line  connect- 
FiG.  I.  ing  the  extremities  of  the  arc,  as  JL,  is  Fig.  2 

called  a  chord. 

4.   Horizontal  lines.  5.   Oblique  lines  (used  in  sections). 

6.    Horizontal  Imes  varying  in  width- 


THE    USE  OF  INSTRUMENTS. 


227 


Caution  the  pupils  against  too  great  pressure  on  the  metal  point.  The 
pressure  should  be  so  light  as  to  make  no  hole  in  the  paper  at  the  point  taken 
as  centre. 

Show  also  how  to  use  the  rule.  The  rule  is  to  be  used  for  ruling  and  for 
measuring.  For  ruling,  it  must  be  placed  with  great  care  a  slight  distance  from 
the  pomts  to  be  connected,  so  as  to  allow  for  the  thickness  of  the  pencil  lead,  and 
must  be  held  firmly  with  the  thumb  and 
two  fingers  of  the  left  hand.  Question 
about  the  divisions  on  the  rule,  to  be  sure 
that  they  are  understood.  The  illustration 
given  opposite  shows  a  good  arrangement 
of  the  exercises  for  practice  in  the  use  of 
compasses  and  geometric  terms,  that  are 
suggested  on  the  opposite  page. 

Geometric  Problems.  —  Geome- 
try is  the  basis  of  accurate  instrumental 
drawing.  The  drawing-board  and  T-square,  used  by  mechanical  draughtsmen,  give 
a  short  cut  to  accuracy,  and  in  many  schools  they  are  used  by  the  pupils.  An 
understanding  of  geometric  principles  is  nevertheless  necessary,  and  the  study  of 
geometric  problems  is  of  great  disciplinary  value. 

The  main  effort  should  be  to  fix  the  geometric  laws  and  the  relation  between 
problems.  For  example,  the  axiom,  "two  points  of  a  line  determine  its  direction," 
is  at  the  root  of  all  the  relation  of  parallels.  Children  do  not  always  see  parallels. 
Indeed,  they  seldom  notice  parallels  that  are  out  of  the  more  ordinary  positions  until 
trained  to  observ^e  them.  In  teaching  Problem  i,  care  should  be  taken  that  this 
law  shall  become  general  in  its  application,  so  that  the  pupils  will  be  able  to  use  it 
under  all  possible  conditions. 

Another  law  governs  all  bisection,  whether  of  line,  arc,  or  angle,  and  this  law 
should  become  the  possession  of  the  pupils. 

As  for  relations,  the  equilateral  triangle  is  found  in  the  hexagon,  and  is  easily 
made  in  the  trisected  semicircle,  while  both  the  equilateral  triangle  and  the  trisected 
semicircle  go  into  the  making  of  the  regular  hexagon. 


In  teaching  geometric  problems,  while  dictation  must  necessarily  be  used,  the 
work  should  not  stop  with  dictation,  but  the  pupils  should  be  led  to  realize  the  truths 
worked  out  under  dictation,  and  to  relate  these  truths. 


228  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

The  following  list  includes  all  the  problems  that  will  be  necessary  for  the  pres- 
ent work  in  Construction. :  — 


Problem  i 

Problem  2 

Problem  3 

Problem  4 

Problem  5 

Problem  6 

Problem  7 

Problem  8 

Problem  9 
Problem  10 


•  To  draw  a  line  parallel  to  a  given  line. 

■  To  bisect  a  line,  or  to  draw  a  line  perpendicular  to  it  at  its 
centre. 

To  bisect  an  arc. 
To  bisect  an  angle. 

■  To  construct  an  equilateral  triangle  on  a  given  base. 

■  To  trisect  a  semicircle. 

■  To  draw  a  regular  hexagon. 

■  To  draw  a  regular  hexagon  on  a  given  base. 
To  draw  a  perpendicular  at  the  end  of  a  given  line. 
To  construct  angles  of  go°  and  45°  at  a  point  upon  a  given 

line. 
Problem  11.  —  To  construct  angles  of  60°  and  30°  at  a  point  upon  a  given 

line. 

Method  of  Development.  —  Exercises  in  the  development  of  some  of  these 
problems  are  given  as  suggestions  to  the  teacher  of  good  methods,  by  which  pupils 
can  be  led  to  think  out  their  solution. 

Problem  i.  —  Begin  the  work  by  giving  the  following  dictation  exercise.  The 
questions  and  answers  are  merely  suggestive ;  take  your  own  method  of  leading  the 
pupils  to  discover  the  process. 

Dictation,  i.  —  Draw  a  horizontal  line  5  inches  long,  marking  the  ends  A 
and  B.  With  a  radius  of  i  inch  and  A  as  a  centre  describe  an  arc  intersecting  the 
line  at  the  right  of  A,  and  mark  that  point  C.  With  C  as  a  centre,  and  radius  CA, 
describe  a  semicircle  on  the  line  AB.  With  the  right  end  of  the  curve  just  drawn, 
as  a  centre,  and  the  same  radius,  describe  a  second  semicircle.  In  the  same  way, 
describe  a  third  and  a  fourth  semicircle  successively  on  the  line  AB.  Rule  a  line 
tangential  to,  or  touching,  the  highest  points  in  the  four  semicircles.  Number  this 
line  I  2.     The  letters  and  figures  refer  to  the  illustrations  on  page  229. 

Ask  pupils  now  to  lay  their  instruments  back  on  their  desks,  and  study  the 
drawing  which  they  have  just  made.     Ask  — 

How  does  the  line  i   2  compare  in  direction  with  the  line  AB?  —  The  line  i  2  is 

parallel  to  the  Hne  AB. 
When  is  one  line  parallel  to  another?  —  When  the  lines  are  the  same  distance  apart 

throughout  their  entire  length. 


THE    USE   OF  INSTRUMENTS.  229 

Prove  that  i  2  and  AB  are  the  same  distance  apart  throughout  their  entire  length.  — 
The  same  radius  was  taken  for  all  the  semicircles,  and  the  line  i  2  just  touches 
the  highest  point  in  each  semicircle. 

Good.  Now,  how  can  you  draw  a  line  parallel  to  DE?  —  By  drawing  on  DE,  as  we 
did  on  AB,  four  semicircles  with  the  same  radius,  and  then  drawing  a  line  tan- 
gential to  them. 

Now  think;  cannot  a  line  be  drawn  parallel  to  DE  with  less  work?  —  Yes;  with  only 
one  semicircle  at  each  end. 

Come  to  the  board  and  do  it.  Now,  can  this  be  done  with  any  less  work  ?  —  Yes  ;  by 
drawing  just  the  top  of  each  of  the  two  semicircles. 

Right.     What  is  a  part  of  a  circumference  called  ?  —  An  arc. 

Now  1  think  you  can  tell  me  about  drawing  a  line  parallel  to  DE.  How  many  arcs 
will  be  necessary  ?  —  Two. 

Where  must  their  centres  be  ?  —  On  the  line  DE,  near  the  ends. 

Where  must  the  arcs  be  drawn  ?  —  Above  the  centres. 

How  long  must  the  arcs  be  }  —  Long  enough  to  show  plainly  the  highest  points. 

What  radius?  —  A  radius  equal  to  the  required  distance  between  the  lines. 

Here  is  a  line,  DE,  on  the  board,  and  here  is  a  shorter  line,  EG.  Come  to  the  board, 
and  draw  a  line  parallel  to  DE,  at  a  distance  FG. 

2.  Draw  a  line  parallel  to  DE,  at  a  distance  FG.  Make  the  arcs  fine  and 
light.  The  letters  refer  to  the  illustration  below.  The  drawing  required  from  pupils 
in  this  exercise  is  here  illustrated. 


r H- — E 

F .G 


When  the  work  is  completed,  the  pupils  should  be  led  to  state  the  problem, 
and  the  manner  of  working  it,  as  follows  :  — 

Problem   i  .  —  To  draiv  a  line  parallel  to  a  given  line. 

Let  DE  be  the  given  line.  Take  any  two  points  in  the  line  DE,  near  the  ends, 
as  centres,  and,  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  required  distance  between  the  lines, 
describe  two  arcs  above  the  centres.  Draw  a  line  3  4  tangential  to,  or  touching, 
the  arcs.     3  4  will  be  the  required  line. 


230 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


Problem  2.  —  Do  not  state  to  the  pupils  the  object  of  this  exercise,  but  give 

the  following  dictation.  .  rr  .  .•  nr-.u    \  .  j 

°  Dictation.  —  With  A  as  centre,  and 

a  radius  greater  than  half  of  AB,  de- 
scribe a  circle.  With  B  as  centre,  and 
the  same  radius,  describe  a  circle  inter- 
secting the  first.  Mark  the  points  of  inter- 
section I  and  2.  Rule  a  line,  3  4,  through 
I  and  2. 

Ask  pupils  now  to  lay  their  instru- 
ments back  on  the  desks,  and  study  their 
drawing.     Ask  — 

How  does  the  line  3  4  divide  the  line 
AB  ? — In   the   centre.      The   line 
bisects  3  4  the  line  AB. 
How  does  the  line  3  4  compare  in  direc- 
tion with  the  line  AB  ?  —  The  line 
is  perpendicular  to  AB. 
The  line  3  4  is  perpendicular  to  AB  at 
what  point? — At  the  centre  of  AB. 
Here  is  a  line,  AB,  on  the  board.     Come  and  bisect  it.     How  did  you  do  it  ?  —  By 

drawing  two  circles  and  a  line  to  connect  the  points  of  intersection. 
Who  can  do  it  with  less  work  ?    Come  and  do  it.    How  have  you  done  it  ?  —  Instead 
of  whole  circles,  I  drew  arcs  long  enough  to  intersect  above  and  below  the  line. 
This  line,  AB,  on  the  board  is  bisected.     Here  is  another  line,  CD.    Who  can  draw  a 
line  perpendicular  to  CD  at  its  centre  ?     Come  and  do  it.     How  many  arcs  will 
be  necessary?  —  Two.     How  long  must  they  be? — Long  enough  to  intersect 
above  and  below  the  line. 
What  centres  must  be  taken  ?  —  The  ends  of  the  line. 

What  radius  must  be  taken  for  the  first  arc  ? —  A  radius  greater  than  half  the  line. 
What  radius  for  the  second  arc  ?  —  The  same  as  for  the  first. 

When  this  work  is  completed,  ask  the  pupils  to  state  the  problem  and  the 
manner  of  working  it  as  follows  :  — 

Problem  2. — To  bisect  a  line,  or  to  draw  a  line  perpendicular  to  it  at  its  centre. 

Let  CD  be  the  given  line.  With  a  radius  greater  than  half  the  line,  and  the 
points  C  and  D  as  centres,  describe,  with  the  same  radius,  arcs  intersecting  each 
other  above  and  below  the  line  CD,  in  points  5  and  6.  Draw  a  line,  7  8,  through 
points  5  and  6.  The  Hne  7  8  bisects  the  line  CD,  and  is  also  perpendicular  to  the 
line  CD  at  its  centre. 


THE    USE  OF  INSTEUMENTS. 


231 


Problem  3.  —  In  a  similar  manner,  lead  to  a  statement  of  Problem  3. 

Problem  3.  —  To  bisect  an  arc. 

Let  EF  be  the  given  arc.  With  a  radius  greater  than  half  the  distance  from 
E  to  F,  and  the  points  E  and  F  as  centres,  describe  arcs  intersecting  each  other 
above  and  below  the  arc  EF.  A  line  through  these  points  of  intersection  bisects 
the  arc. 

Problem  4.  —  The  following  dictation  illustrates  the  application  of  preceding 
problems  in  the  development  of  Problem  4.  The  resulting  figure  should  be  like  the 
illustration  below. 

Dictation. —  Draw  a  horizontal  line  2i- "  in  length  and  mark  the  ends  GH. 
Bisect  GH  by  Problem  2,  and  mark  the  centre  I.  With  I  as  a  centre,  and  the 
radius  GI,  describe  a  circle. 

Draw  the  vertical  diameter  of  the  circle  by  continuing  the  line  of  bisection  each 
way  to  meet  the  circumference.  Mark  this  vertical  diameter  JK.  Draw  an  oblique 
diameter  which  shall  bisect  two  diametrically 
opposite  quarter  circles  or  quadrants.  How 
can  this  be  done  ?  By  bisecting  the  arcs 
GJ  and  JH.  With  G  and  J  as  centres,  and 
a  radius  greater  than  GJ,  draw  arcs  inter- 
secting in  L.  Draw  a  line  from  L  through 
I  to  the  opposite  part  of  the  circumference. 
Bisect  GI.  With  I  as  a  centre,  and  a  radius 
equal  to  half  of  GI,  describe  a  circle. 

Study  the   figure   as   in   the    preceding 
problems  :  — 

What   is    the   angle   GIJ  ?  —  An    angle  of 


90°,  because  it  is  a  quarter  circle. 
How  does  the  line  LI^ divide  it? — It  bisects  it. 
How  did  we  get  L  ?  —  By  taking  the  ends  of  the  arc  GJ  as  centres  and  describing 

intersecting  arcs. 
What  is  the  angle  JIH  ?  —  An  angle  of  90°.     (The  points  where  the  small  circle 

intersects  the  lines  JI  and  HI  may  be  marked  MN.) 
What  is  the  angle  MIN  ?  —  An  angle  of  90°.     Bisect  it  as  in  the  case  of  GIJ  and 

extend  the  line  of  bisection  through  to  the  circumference  so  as  to  give  another 

oblique  diameter  of  the  large  circle. 
How  does  this  line  divide  the  angle  HIJ  ?  —  It  bisects  it. 


232 


teacher's  manual. 


It  will  be  seen  that  this  work  leads  the  pupils  directly  to  the  bisection  of  an 
angle.  In  giving  this  work,  try  to  have  pupils  discover  for  themselves  the  relation 
between  the  different  problems,  and  to  feel  that  bisection  in  all  cases  rests  on  the 

same  principles. 

Let  the  previous  work  lead  to  the  following 
statement  of — 

Problem  4.  —  To  bisect  an  angle. 

Let  ABC  be  a  giv^en  angle  to  be  bisected. 
With  B  as  centre,  and  any  radius  less  than  BC, 
draw  an  arc  intersecting  AB  and  BC  at  i  2.  With 
I  and  2  as  centres,  and  the  same  radius,  draw 
arcs  intersecting  at  3.  Draw  B  3.  This  line  will 
bisect  the  angle  ABC. 

Problems  5,  6,  7,  8.  —  Do  not  state  the  object  of  the  exercise,  but  begin  the 
work  by  giving  the  following  dictation  :  — 

Dictation.  —  With  any  desired  radius  describe 
a  circle,  and  mark  its  centre  C.  Draw  its  horizontal 
diameter,  AB.  With  AC  as  a  radius  and  A  and  B  as 
centres,  construct  arcs  intersecting  the  circumference 
at  I,  2,  3,  and  4.  Rule  lines  connecting  the  adjacent 
intersecting  points.     Connect  i  and  C. 

Ask  pupils  now  to  lay  their  instruments  back  on 
their  desks,  and  study  the  drawing  which  they  have 
just  made.     Ask  — 

What  is  the  figure  A  i  C?  —  A  triangle.     An  equilateral  triangle. 

What  is  a  triangle?  —  A  figure  having  three  sides. 

What  is  an  equilateral  triangle  ?  —  An  equilateral  triangle  is  a  triangle  having  three 

equal  sides. 
What  is  the  base  of  a  triangle  ?  —  The  base  of  a  triangle  is  the  side  on  which  it 

seems  to  rest. 
What  is  the  base  of  the  triangle  i  AC  ?  —  AC. 
Can  you  draw,  with  the  aid  of  your  compasses,  an  equilateral  triangle  on  a  given  line, 

DE,  as  a  base  ?  —  Yes ;  with  DE  as  radius,   and    D   and   E   as  centres,  draw 

quadrants,  and  rule  lines  from  the  point  of  intersection  to  D  and  E. 
Come  to  the  board  and  show  how  you  would   do   it.     Can    it   be   done  with   less 

work  ?  —  Yes ;  with  the  same  radius  and  centres,  describe  short  arcs  that  will 

intersect  above  the  centre  of  the  line  DE,  and  then  rule  lines  from  the  point 

of  intersection  to  D  and  E. 


THE   USE  OF  INSTBUMENTS. 


233 


How  is  the   semicircle  A  i   2  B    divided?  —  The  semicircle  is  divided   into   three 

equal  parts,  that  is,  trisected. 
How  could  you  trisect  a  semicircumference  with  your  compasses  ?  —  With  the  radius 

of  the  semicircle  as  radius,  and  with  each  end  of  the  semicircle  as  centre,  describe 

short  arcs  cutting  the  semicircumference. 
Does  A  3  4  B  look  like  any  figure  that  you  have  ever  seen  ?  —  Does  it  look  like  a 

part  of  any  figure  that  you  have  ever  seen  ?  —  It  looks  like  half  a  hexagon,  —  half 

the  base  of  a  hexagonal  prism. 
What  is  a  hexagon  ?  — ^  A  hexagon  is  a  figure  having  six  sides. 
Yes ;  and  vv-hen  the  sides  are  equal,  the  hexagon  is  called  a  regular  hexagon.     When 

they  are  unequal,  the  hexagon  is  called  an  irregular  hexagon.     Is  A  3  4  B  half  of 

a  regular  hexagon,  or  of  an  irregular  hexagon  ?  —  A  3  4  B  is  half  of  a  regular 

hexagon. 
How  do  you  know  that  it  is  half  of  a  regular  hexagon  ?  —  Because  A  3,  3  4  and  4  B, 

are  all  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  semicircle,  and  must,  therefore,  be  equal  to  each 

other. 
How  could  you  complete  the  hexagon  ?  —  By  drawing  a  semicircle  above  AB,  trisect- 
ing it  by  the  radius  of  the  semicircle,  and  connecting  the  successive  points  by 

straight  lines. 
What  would  AB  then  be  called?  —  The  diameter  of  the  circle. 
Right  in  regard  to  the  circle.     What  would  it  be  called  in  relation  to  the  hexagon  ? 

—  The  diameter. 
No;   a  diameter  of  a  rectilinear  or  straight-line  figure 

connects  the  centres  of  opposite  sides.      What  is 

the   line   that    connects   the   opposite   angles   of  a 

square  called?  —  A  diagonal. 
What  does  AB  connect  ?  —  The  opposite  angles  of  the 

hexagon. 
It  is.  then,  the  diagonal  of  the  hexagon.     Look  now  at 

your   figure  and   think.     How  would   you   draw  a 

regular  hexagon  with  compasses?  —  Take  a  centre 

and  a  radius  and  draw  a 


circle.     Draw  a  diameter  of     ^fj/r  f VU^-^ ^ \ 
dius  of  the  circle,  and  with    •'      V  /'  "         I 


the  circle ;  with  the  radius  of  the  circle,  and  with  ^ 
the  ends  of  the  diameter  as  centres,  trisect  each  T 
semicircle.      .  Ju 

From  this  work  there  may  be  deduced  the  construc- 
tion of  an  equilateral  triangle,  the  trisection  of  a  semi- 
circle, and  the  construction  of  a  hexagon  under  different 
conditions.  The  applications  of  these  problems  are  frequent — one  of  these  applica- 
tions in  machinery  showing  the  working-drawing  of  a  hexagonal  bolt-head  is  given 
iiere. 


i-a 


234 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


This  work  should  lead  to  the  following  statement  of  the  following  problems  and 
the  manner  of  working  them  :  — 


Problem  5. —  To  di-aw  an  equilateral  triangle  07i  a  given  base. 

Let  DE  be  the  given  base.  With  DE  as  radius,  and  D  and  E  as  centres, 
describe  arcs  intersecting  in  point  i.  Draw  D  i  and  E  i.  i  DE  will  be  the 
required  triangle. 

Problem  6.  —  To  trisect  a  semicircle. 

With  the  radius  of  the  semicircle  as  a  radius,  and  the  ends  of  the  semicircle  as 
centres,  describe  short  arcs  intersecting  the  semicircle.  The  semicircle  will  then 
be  trisected. 

Problem  7.  —  To  draw  a  regular  hexagon. 

With  any  radius  and  any  point  as  centre,  describe  a  circle.  Draw  a  diameter 
of  the  circle.  Trisect  the  two  semicircles.  Connect  the  adjacent  points  by  straight 
lines.     The  figure  thus  drawn  will  be  a  regular  hexagon. 

Problem  8.  —  To  draw  a  regular  hexagon  on  a  given  base. 

Construct  on  the  given  base  an  equilateral  triangle  by  Problem  3.  With  the 
vertex  of  the  triangle  as  centre,  and  one  of  its  sides  as  radius,  describe  a  circle. 
Complete  the  hexagon  by  Problem  5. 


The  illustration  here  shows  a  good  arrangement  of  a  page  of  problems. 


THE    USE   OF  INSTRUMENTS. 


235 


Problem  9.  —  To  draw  a  perpendicular  at  the  end  of  a  given  line. 

Let  PQ  be  the  given  line.  With  P  as  centre,  and 
any  radius,  describe  about  two-thirds  of  a  semicircle,  the 
right  end  of  the  arc  resting  on  the  line  PQ.  With  the 
same  radius,  lay  off  equal  distances  on  the  arc.  With 
I  and  2  as  centres,  describe  arcs  which  intersect  at  3. 
Draw  3  P.     This  will  be  the  required  perpendicular. 

Problem  10. —  To  construct  angles  of  90°  and  45° 
at  a  point  upon  a  given  line. 

Let  DE  be  the  given  line  ;  it  is  required  to  make  at  D  angles  of  90°  and  45°. 
At  D  erect  a  perpendicular,  3  D,  by  Problem  9.  This  gives  the  right  angle  or 
angle  of  90°,  3  DE.  Bisect  this  angle  by  Problem  4,  by  the  line  5  D.  The  angles 
3  D  5  and  5  DE  are  each  angles  of  45°  as  required. 


Problem  11.  —  To  cotistruct  angles  of  60°  and  30°  at  a  given  point  upon  a 
given  line. 

Let  GH  be  the  given  line.  Angles  of  60°  and  30°  are  required  at  the  point  G. 
With  G  as  centre,  and  any  radius  less  than  GH,  draw  an  arc  upwards  from  i  on  GH. 
Lay  off  on  this  from  i  the  distance  i  2,  equal  to  G  i.  Draw  G  2.  The  angle  2  G  i 
is  the  angle  of  60°  required.  Bisect  this  by  Problem  4  by  the  line  G  3.  The 
angles  3  G  i  and  3  G  2  are  angles  of  30°  as  required. 


236  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


Suggestions  for  the  Blank   Pages  in  Book  8. 

As  the  work  in  drawing  progresses,  and  both  teachers  and  pupils  become  more 
famihar  with  the  principles  and  the  purpose  of  the  work,  exercises  giving  scope  to 
individual  preference,  or  leading  to  some  end  desirable  for  a  special  class,  may  very 
properly  receive  attention.  The  blank  pages  provide  space  for  such  optional  work, 
the  fact  that  the  work  is  placed  in  the  book  insuring  permanence  and  increasing  the 
incentive  to  thoughtful  effort.  The  teacher  should  give  careful  consideration  to  the 
special  advantages  and  to  the  general  deficiencies  of  the  class  in  planning  the  work 
for  these  pages.  It  may  be  possible  to  make  quite  a  close  individual  adaptation  of 
the  work.  Any  of  the  given  subjects  may  be  enlarged  upon  and  advanced  in 
thought.  Drawing  from  the  pose,  copying  simple  drawings  of  good  artists,  or  work 
in  color,  may  be  selected,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  teacher  as  to  the  needs 
and  abihty  of  the  class. 

Some  of  the  teachers  may  wish  to  use  the  space  on  all  of  the  pages  for  progres- 
sive work  in  some  particular  line,  as  in  construction,  for  which  the  manual  text  for 
each  exercise  provides  abundant  suggestion  under  the  head  of  additional  work,  or  for 
advanced  work  in  decoration,  and  this  will  prove  especially  enjoyable  if  brush-work 
is  possible. 

Individual  pupils  may  be  permitted  to  copy  some  of  the  work  on  the  illustrative 
pages.  In  some  instances  it  may  be  considered  desirable  to  devote  these  pages 
entirely  to  color  work.  The  effect  generally  produced  is  not  good  when  work  in 
water  color  and  in  colored  paper  face  each  other. 

For  those  who  desire  work  definitely  laid  out,  the  following  lines  are  suggested, 
to  be  carried  out  in  the  order  given. 

1.  A  study  of  fine  pottery. 

2.  Animal  studies. 

3.  Design  with  straight-line  elements. 

4.  Figure  drawing — imagination. 

Study  of  Pottery.  —  For  this  page  it  would  be  well  for  the  pupils,  if  possible, 
to  visit  an  art  museum  and  study  Egyptian  and  Greek  vases.  Such  work  would 
strengthen  the  impression  made  by  the  study  of  historic  ornament.  They  should  be 
careful  to  select  beautiful  forms. 


PLATE    XVI L 


.// 


"f/^,   ^'^ 


X,    '>^. 


■  C    ,  '■ 

/      f 


■'<^ 


r'  X.. 


"x. 


Rain- 


Sun. 


ij 


■^- 


V  '•--.... 


.f""^ 


Water. 


■fr 


\^. 


f  ■',. 


/■ 


EakI  H. 


Drawings  by  a  Sixth  Year  Pupil,  reproduced  in  MiniatUK 


ANIMAL   STUDIES. 


237 


Animal  Studies.  —  The  sketches  for  these  studies  may  be  made  at  home  or 
wherever  it  is  practicable.  Mrs.  Abby  Morton  Diaz,  in  writing  upon  cats,  attributed 
to  one  the  following  poem,  which  well  embodies  the  characteristics  of  a  cat ;  — 

"  O  lovely  creature ! 

How  elegant  is  your  form ! 

How  graceful  your  motions! 
The  fall  of  your  feet  is  like  the  falling  of  snowflakes, 
The  gentle  wave  of  your  tail  is  like  the  wave  of  a  soldier's  plume, 
Your  eyes  are  greener  than  the  leaves  of  the  sacred  catnip." 

"We  use,  then,  the  real  court  language,  which  is  part  Egyptian ;  for  we  sprang  from 
an  Egyptian  race." 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  cat  was  sacred  to  the  Egyptians. 


i~  *  » t  '^  %  *  ^  ''^tk  '*  -V 


'Al^  *4^'  ^i^ 


glS'^-g^f-'"*"^*''     "*''^""'     -MB  ^.i^*"       -  ■->     "1       °     ■■^T^ 


Design.  —  'I'his  might  be  border  or  surface  design,  using,  as  did  the  Egyptians, 
only  straight  Hne  elements.     Some  designs  by  Miss  Littig  are  given  here. 

Figure  Drawing — Imagination.  —  Pupils  will  have  had  considerable  prac- 
tice in  drawing  from  the  pose,  and  might  now  try  drawing  from  imagination.  The 
drawings  on  Plates  XVII.  and  XVIII.  were  by  a  pupil  of  the  sixth  year. 


238 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


The  following  poem  is  suggestive  of  similar  work  :  — 


'■'•  And  the  Sun  had  on  a  crown 
Wrought  of  gilded  thistledown, 

And  a  scarf  of  velvet  vapor, 
And  a  ravelled-rainbovv  gown  ; 
And  his  tinsel-tangled  hair, 
Tossed  and  lost  upon  the  air, 

Was  glossier  and  flossier 
Than  any  anywhere. 


"  And  the  South  Wind's  eyes  were  two 

Little  dancing  drops  of  dew, 
As  he  puffed  his  cheeks  and  pursed  his  lips. 

And  blew  and  blew  and  blew! 

And  the  Sun's,  like  diamond-stone. 

Brighter  yet  than  ever  known, 
As  he  knit  his  brows  and  held  his  breath, 

And  shone  and  shone  and  shone! 


"  And  the  South  Wind  —  he  was  dressed 
With  a  ribbon  round  his  breast 

That  floated,  flapped,  and  fluttered 
In  a  riotous  unrest, 
And  a  drapery  of  mist 
From  the  shoulder  and  the  wrist 

Flowing  backward  with  the  motion 
Of  the  waving  hand  he  kissed." 


— James  Whitcomb  Riley. 

Special   Scheme.  —  A  sequential  scheme  for  the  four  pages  could  be  made 
out,  as  creative  work  in  constructive  design  ;  for  instance  :  — 

1.  Plan  of  room,  designed  by  pupil. 

2.  Working- drawings  of  furniture,  designed  by  pupil. 

3.  Design  for  wall  paper,  original  with  pupil. 

4.  Picture  of  one  corner  of  the  room. 


PLATt  xviir. 


c 


0, 


.-Y 


V    V 


> 


\  wrm 


/■       n  |/  i-  V  \ 


V 


■'^'a\ 


The  New  Shoes. 


(/  /,' 


V-  ..:;;: 


T„,^ _^ 

Vi^' 

■      ■^.^-" 

,.T-V.^„ 

-^Ti^^^y 

Sleep. 


"'"■■^•v.. 


h 


^^\ 


'^  / 


11 


\\ 


/  / 


'^4   ? 


f 


t 


"k 


m 


r 


'  ''i:!i 


/ 


1/ 
n 


Fairies. 
Drawings  by  a  Sixth  Year  Pupil,  reproduced  in  Miniature. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


239 


BOOK  8,  PAGE  9. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  25. 


Type  Solids.  —  Views.     Patterns.     Plans. 

Art,  —  Views.     Patterns.     Plans.     Manner  of  Drawing. 

[The  pupil  studies  the  views  and  the  development  of  the  cone  and 
the  pyramid  as  shown  on  the  drawing--book;  page,  studies  for 
the  views,  and  develops  the  pattern  of  one  or  more  of  the  type 
forms,  and  makes  sketches,  or  makes  plans  for  a  house  or  room, 
chooses  one  for  drawing  on  the  drawing-book  page,  plans  care- 
fully for  the  placing,  and  draws  it  in  the  book,  seeking  for 
accuracy  and  neatness.] 

Relation  of  Views  and  Patterns. — The  pupils  will  take  up  this  line  of 
constructive  work  with  the  advantage  of  some  previous  experience  in  drawing, 
cutting,  folding,  and  pasting  patterns  of  cubes,  prisms,  plinths,  and  objects  based  on 
these.  They  come  now  to  that  stage  in  their  work  when  they  should  see  more 
definitely  the  relation  between  views  and  patterns.  As  views  express  the  facts  of 
length,  breadth,  and  thickness,  and  as  patterns  are  worked  out  by  the  same  measures, 
it  follows  that  there  must  be  a  direct  connection  between  the  two.  Indeed,  in  many 
cases,  the  geometrical  expression  of  the  pattern  is  wholly  dependent  upon  the  work- 
ing-drawing of  the  object,  as  in  the  square  pyramid  and  cone  which  are  given 
on  page  9  of  the  drawing- book. 

c 


C 


D 


B 


A 

/ 

B 

L 

J 

D 

F 

D 


B 


D 


B 


Each  face  of  the  pattern  coinciding  in  measure 
with  a  view. 


Square  faces  have  the  same  measure  as  the  top  view, 
oblong  faces  as  the  front  and  side  views. 


The  drawings  given  above,  and  those  on  the  drawing-book  page,  illustrate  the 
coincidence  of  dimensions  which  must  exist  between  the  views  and  patterns. 


240 


teacher's  manual. 


The  pupils  should  understand  the  geometric  principles  underlying  the  construc- 
tion of  such  patterns,  whether  they  work  them  out  freehand  or  with  instruments. 

The  illustrations  given  below  show  how  measurements  for  pattern  drawings  may 
be  obtained  from  working-drawings. 


^ 


^2~i 


B 


Circular  faces  have  the  same  measures  as  top 
view.  Curved  face  takes  its  measures 
from  height  and  circumference  of  top 
view. 


Circular  face  has  the  same  measures  as  top 
view.  Curved  face  takes  its  measures 
from  slant  height,  and  circumference  of 
top  view. 


Square  face  has  the  same  measures  as  top  view.  Triangular 
faces  take  their  measures  from  distance  from  apex  to  corner 
of  base  (EH)  and  from  side  of  base  (CD). 


The  last  illustration  shows  a  method  of  obtaining  the  radius  for  the  pattern 
differing  from  that  shown  on  the  drawing-book  page.  The  distance  EG  is  the  same 
in  the  front  view,  in  the  drawing  of  the  one  face  at  the  side,  and  in  the  developed 
surface.  First  EG  in  the  front  view  is  projected  obliquely,  to  be  used  as  the  altitude 
of  the  triangular  face.  The  construction  of  the  triangle  EHI  on  the  line  EG  would 
give  the  slant  height  EH,  which  is  used  as  the  radius  in  developing  the  surface. 


CONSTRUCTION.  241 

Preparation  for  the  Study  of  Patterns. —  Lead  the  pupils  to  study  the 
patterns  on  the  drawing-book  page,  and  to  understand  something  of  the  connection 
of  these  patterns  with  industry.  If  patterns  or  blue-prints  of  surface  patterns  of 
boxes,  lamp-shades,  or  sheet  metal  work  can  be  borrowed  to  illustrate  the  work  in 
the  classroom,  they  will  help  the  pupils  to  comprehend  the  subject  —  especially  if 
objects  made  from  the  patterns  can  be  shown  at  the  same  time. 

Some  patterns  of  simple  objects,  cut  out  and  folded,  should  be  shown  to 
the  class.  These  can  easily  be  made  in  advance  of  the  lesson  by  the  teacher  or  by 
one  of  the  more  capable  pupils.  Pasteboard  boxes  can  be  cut  apart  and  spread  out 
to  show  the  pattern  necessary  for  their  construction. 

Some  small  household  utensils  of  tin  or  other  sheet  metal,  are  made  now 
by  pressing  or  stamping  into  form  by  means  of  moulds  and  dies,  while  others  are 
still  made  in  the  tinsmith's  fashion,  by  joining  the  different  parts  of  the  surface.  It 
would  be  well  to  show  pupils  examples  of  each  kind  of  work,  explaining  the  differ- 
ence. If  there  is  a  tinsmith  in  the  locality,  he  might  be  wilHng  to  loan  pieces  of 
partially  completed  work.  Sheet  metal  work  is  one  of  the  most  important  indus- 
trial applications  of  surface  development,  and  all  these  practical  illustrations  interest 
pupils  in  the  work  which  is  to  follow. 

Preparation  for  the  Lesson.  The  Cone.  —  In  the  views  and  develop- 
ment of  the  cone  on  page  lo  of  the  drawing-book,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
measurement  of  the  curved  edge  of  the  curved  face  has  been  determined  geometrically. 
A  paper  model  of  a  cone  which  can  be  unrolled  will  help  the  teacher  in  understanding 
and  explaining  this.  The  pattern  of  the  base  of  the  cone  must,  of  course,  be  a  circle 
of  the  same  size  as  the  top  view.  The  pattern  of  the  curved  face  will  have  one 
curved  and  two  straight  edges.  The  curved  edge  is  a  part  of  the  circumference  of 
a  circle,  of  which  the  slant  height  of  the  cone  is  the  radius.  The  straight  edges  will 
be  equal  in  length  to  the  slant  height  of  the  cone.  The  slant  height  of  the  cone 
may  be  seen  in  the  oblique  lines  of  the  front  view.  The  length  of  the  curved  edge 
must  be  equal  to  the  circumference  of  the  base,  or  to  the  circumference  of  the  top 
view,  which  is  just  the  sarae. 

In  the  illustration  the  arc  ACDEB  is  half  of  a  circle,  of  which  AB  is  the  diam- 
eter, while  it  forms  the  chord  of  the  arc.  The  difference  be-  c 
tween  the  chord  AB  and  the  arc  ACDEB  is  greater  propor- 
tionately than  the  difference  between  the  chord  AC  and  the 
arc  AC.  The  smaller  subdivisions  of  the  arc  lessen  this  differ- 
ence, as  seen  at  CD  and  DE ;  so,  to  obtain  the  measurement, 
the  circumference   of  the  top  view   is  divided  into  sixteenths.      These    measure- 


242  teacher's  manual. 

ments  are  set  off  upon  the  curved  edge  of  the  pattern  of  the  curved  face,  thus 
fixing  the  length  of  the  curved  edge,  and  determining  the  points  in  the  circum- 
ference from  which  the  straight  Unes  shall  be  drawn  to  the  centre. 

In  the  development  of  the  cylinder,  given  on  page  240,  the  length  of  the  straight 
edges  which  are  to  be  joined  to  the  circumference  of  the  bases  is  determined  in  the 
same  way. 

The  Frustum  of  the  Cone.  —  In  the  development  of  the  frustum  it  will 
be  seen  that  there  are  two  curved  edges,  each  being  an  arc  of  a  circle.  The  radius 
of  the  first  or  larger  one  is  the  slant  height  of  the  cone  as  shown  in  the  front  view. 
The  radius  of  the  second  is  the  slant  height  between  the  vertex  of  the  cone  and  the 
top  of  the  frustum. 

The  Square  Pyramid. — Tne  front  view  of  the  square  pyramid  does  not 
give  the  true  slant  height.  If  the  model  is  turned  at  an  angle  of  45°,  as  indicated  by 
the  dash  lines  in  the  top  view,  the  slant  height  would  be  the  dash  line  AB  in  the 
front  view.  The  slant  height  thus  found  would  be  the  radius  of  the  arc  shown  by 
the  dash  line  in  the  development.  Upon  this  arc  the  width  of  the  base  of  each 
triangular  face  is  set  off,  and  the  square  base  added. 

Suggestions  for  the  Pupils.  —  Study  the  views  on  the  drawing-book  page  and  see  if  you 
can  read  them.  Study  the  patterns  and  see  if  you  can  tell  how  they  are  related 
to  the  views.  Make  a  freehand  sketch  of  the  views  of  some  model,  and  from  the  views 
develop  the  surface.  What  measures  are  common  to  the  views  and  the  surface  de- 
velopment? In  what  other  way  can  you  prove  that  the  surface  is  correctly  developed? 
Prove  your  work.  Study  the  space  on  the  drawing-book  page  and  make  a  new  draw- 
ing of  the  views  and  surface  already  drawn  to  fill  this  space  well.  Complete  the 
drawing,  using  the  necessary  conventions  with  much  thought  and  care.  Prove  your 
work  by  making  a  paper  pattern  of  the  model  and  cutting  and  pasting  it. 

"  Stout  muscles  and  a  sinewy  heart, 
A  hardy  frame,  a  hardier  spirit ; 

King  of  two  hands,  he  does  his  part 
In  every  useful  toil  and  art." 

Additional  Exercise.  Plans.  The  House  as  a  Home. — The  evolu- 
tion of  the  modern  dwelling  house  is  an  interesting  study,  and  although  we  have  lost 
trace  of  many  of  the  intermediate  steps,  it  is  easy  to  find  enough  of  them  to  show 
that  the  development  of  a  family  home  from  a  mere  shelter  has  accompanied  the 
growing  needs  of  a  family  for  a  more  beautiful  home  life. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


243 


One  of  the  primitive  forms  of  shelter  was  a  simple  tent.  To  a  certain  extent 
it  answered  the  demand  for  protection  from  sun  and  storms,  and  provided  for  air, 
light,  and  heat. 

The  Indians  made  conical  tents,  called  tepees,  from  the  skins  of  animals.  These 
had  a  hole  in  the  top  through  which  the  smoke  from  the  fire  beneath  could  escape. 

Soldiers  use  canvas  tents  for  sleeping,  cooking,  and  eating.  The  ordinary  sleep- 
ing tents  are  called  A  tents  from  their  form.  These  are  but  six  feet  in  length,  and 
the  floor  will  accommodate  two  small  mattresses  placed  side  by  side  or  one  broad 
one. 


Plan  of  A  Tent. 


The  tents  used  for  fishing  and  hunting  parties  for  "  camping  out  "  in  summer 
are  usually  larger,  so  that  four  cots  or  more  are  placed  along  the  sides,  leaving  room 
in  the  centre  which  may  be  used  for  cooking  and  eating  if  necessary. 


A 

IH 

A 

c    Od 

B 

A 

c 

n 

A 

'.'■■/('.''Jf . ,  m- 
A,  Cots.     B,  Table.     C/Closet  for  dishes.     D,  Stove.    E,  Washstand.     F,  Trunk  for  clothing. 


-V-  -» ■ 


Tents  have  always  been  much  used  by  wandering  people,  like  the  Gypsies, 
Indians,  and  Arabs,  because  they  are  so  easily  moved. 
Longfellow  speaks  of  the  cares  which 

"  Fold  their  tents  like  the  Arabs 
And  as  silently  steal  awav." 


244 


teacher's  manual. 


Throne-room  at  Teheran. 


The  tents  of  the  Bedouins  and  Arabs  are  their  permanent  homes,  though  they 
are  moved  from  place  to  place,  and  they  have  made  them  beautiful  by  using  cover- 
ings and  interior  hangings  and  screens  of  finely 
wrought,  gorgeously  colored  stuffs.  Saracenic 
architecture  shows  reminiscent  traces  of  tent 
construction  in  the  many  hangings  and  canopies 
which  adorn  their  palaces,  and  in  the  simulation 
of  fringes  and  tapestry  with  which  they  decorated 
the  spandrels  of  their  arches.  The  illustration 
below  is  a  spandrel  from  the  Alhambra,  the  famous  fortress  built  by  the 
Moors   in   Spain,  showing  pendentives  decorated   with  a  profusion  of  ornament. 

"The  groves  were  God's  first  temples," 
and  the  dehght  and  inspiration  that  came 
from  worship  in  them  made  the  camp  meeting 
the  event  of  the  year  for  the  country  people 
of  early  times.  From  far  and  near  the  people 
gathered  in  some  beautiful  spot  and  pitched 
their  tents  for  a  season  of  prayer  and  praise. 
The  desire  to  prolong  the  healthful,  happy  out- 
of-door  Hfe  led  to  a  change  in  the  construction 
of  the  tent. 

At  first  campers  used  the  simple  canvas 
tent,  but  for  the  sake  of  greater  protection  they 
soon  began  to  build  the  sides  of  boards,  stretch- 
ing the  cloth  top  over  it  for  a  roof.  This  gave 
them  a  door  which  could  be  locked,  and  windows  which  admitted  light  without 
rain  or  wind ;  the  tent  could  be  taken  down  and  packed  away  when  they  wished. 

Afterward  they  made  permanent  roofs  of  boards, 
and  left  the  tents,  or  cottages,  as  they  had  be- 

-  come,  standing  from  one  season  to  another. 
Cottage  City  is  the  name  given  to  the  en- 

-  campment  ground  at  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  it 
grew  from  the  tent  city  which  was  the  abiding 
place  of  the  first  campers  there. 

In  mining,  lumbering,  and  engineering  camps,  small  portable  houses  are  much 
used  instead  of  tents.  They  are  almost  as  easily  moved  and  afford  greater  protec- 
tion from  cold  weather  and  storms.  These  have  doors,  and  windows  which  may 
or  may  not  be  glazed.     The  house  is  not  much  larger  than  a  tent,  and  may  be 


— ■* 


CONSTRUCTION. 


245 


taken  to  pieces  and  put  together  again  easily.     The  interior  arrangement  would 
be  very  similar  to  that  of  the  tent. 


0 

a- 


A,  Cots.     B,  Table.     C,  Stove.     D,  Chest.     E,  Closet  and  shelves. 

The  houses  built  by  early  settlers  in  this  country  were  much  like  this  in  arrange- 
ment, though  logs  were  used  in  their  construction  before  there  were  any  saw-mills  to 
make  boards.  The  chimney,  built  outside  of  stones,  gave  a  large  fireplace  inside, 
which  furnished  heat  for  comfort  as  well  as  for  cooking. 


-J'l?*/ 


Section. 


^'^:r^'^ 


I       Q    j 

I  I — ■  — I  I  I — 1^ — ' 


A,  Bed.     B,  Table.     C,  Chest.     D,  Shelves.     E,  Cupboard.     F,  Fireplace. 

All  space  was  carefully  utilized,  and  the  top  of  the  house  was  separated  from 
the  room  below  by  a  rough  flooring,  corresponding  to  our  ceiling.  Up  in  "  the  loft," 
as  it  was  called,  the  older  children  slept,  cUmbing  a  ladder  to  go  to  their  beds 
beneath  the  roof.  The  loft  was  also  a  storeroom  for  dried  apples,  pumpkins,  and 
all  sorts  of  winter  provisions. 

At  first  the  struggle  to  provide  the  necessities  of  life  —  food,  shelter,  and 
clothing — for  their  families,  engrossed  the  energies  of  the  colonists,  but  as  time 
went  on  and  they  became  more  prosperous,  the  desire  for  a  more  beautiful  home 
life  changed  the  character  of  their  houses.  The  larger  families  needed  more  room 
and  more  privacy,  so  the  kitchen  in  which  the  cooking  and  eating  were  done  was 
separated  from  the  living  room,  and  the  loft  was  divided  into  rooms  by  partitions. 
The  making  of  bricks  and  the  building  of  saw-mills  gave  to  the  colonists  their  build- 
ing material  in  better  form,  and  they  were  soon  able  to  construct  houses  which  were 


246 


TEACHERS  MANUAL. 


not  so  limited  in  size  or  in  tiie  number  of  the  rooms.  To  add  to  the  comfort  and 
pleasure  of  the  family  the  kitchen  and  dining  room  were  separated,  and  an  entrance, 
or  "front  entry"  as  it  was  called,  was  added.  Instead  of  a  ladder  leading 
to  the  rooms  above,  a  stairway  was  made,  while  there  was  a  bedroom  on  the 
ground  floor  for  the  elderly  people  who  could  not  climb  the  stairs  easily.  Other 
rooms  and  porches,  verandas  and  bay  windows,  were  added  as  they  were  needed, 
and  "  modern  improvements  "  made  according  to  the  necessities  and  the  means  of 
the  family,  and  the  home  became  beautiful  as  well  as  comfortable. 


□   □ 


□ 


DDDD  Dnn 

DDDD  DDD 

DDDD  DDD 

DDDD  DDD 

DDDD  DDD 

DDDD  nDD 


L^e 


A,  Windows. 

B,  Doors.    (The  lines  show  which 

way  they  swing.) 

C,  Steam  radiators. 

D,  Hot-air  registers. 

E,  Ventilating  shaft. 

F,  Teacher's  desk. 

G,  Book-casas. 
H,  Cabinet. 


Plans.  —  In  planning  a  house  or  a  room,  provision  must  be  made  for  air, 
light,  and  heat.  These  essentials  should  be  secured  with  just  as  much  beauty  of 
proportion  and  arrangement  as  possible,  under  the  conditions  of  the  purpose  for 
which  the  structure  is  intended. 

If  it  is  desired  that  the  children  should  exercise  their  creative,  constructive 
power,  they  might  plan  a  tent  or  a  one-room  cottage  for  a  summer  outing,  showing 
how  air,  light,  and  heat  are  to  be  secured,  and  where  the  necessary  articles  of  fur- 
niture are  to  be  placed.  If  preferred,  a  playhouse  could  be  planned,  or  even  so 
simple  a  thing  as  a  dog-house  ;  while  some  teachers  may  think  it  wise  to  confine 
this  exercise  to  drawing  the  plan  of  the  schoolroom. 

The  plan  is  the  simplest  way  of  showing  the  interior  arrangement  of  a  house 
o^  room,  just  as  a  map  is  the  simplest  way  of  showing  the  topography  of  a  country. 

"When  we  mean  to  build, 
We  first  survey  the  plot,  then  draw  the  model.'" 

—  Shakespeare. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


247 


Perhaps  the  schoolroom  itself  or  the  cloak-room  would  afford  the  teacher  the  best 
means  of  teaching  the  children  the  conventional  forms  and  technicalities  employed 
in  drawing  a  plan. 

The  illustration  given  of  a  plan  of  a  schoolroom  will  show  the  teacher  how 
windows,  doors,  chimneys,  heating  arrangements,  etc.,  may  be  correctly  indicated. 

The  thickness  of  the  walls  should  be  kept  in  proportion  to  the  scale  of  the 
drawing. 

If  blue-prints  or  well-finished  drawings  of  plans  can  be  obtained,  they  will  aid 
greatly  in  explaining  difficult  points,  and  in  interesting  pupils.  Illustrations  of 
plans  and  elevations  may  sometimes  be  found  in  magazines. 


Suggestions  to  Pupils.  —  Have  you  ever  seen  plans  of  rooms  and  houses?  Think  what 
you  would  draw  for  the  plan  of  this  room,  and  draw  it  on  the  board.  How  would 
you  get  into  the  room?  How  can  you  indicate  the  doors?  How  do  you  get  air  and 
light  in  this  room?  You  may  indicate  the  windows  and  ventilators  in  your  drawing. 
Show  the  heat  radiators  and  registers. 

You  may  think  of  a  house  with  one  room  which  you  would  like  to  have.  It  may  be  a 
summer-house,  playhouse,  or  a  camp. 

Decide  upon  its  size  and  shape,  considering  for  what  purpose  it  is  to  be  used,  and  plan 
for  its  ventilation,  light,  and  heat. 

Draw  the  plan  of  such  a  house,  showing  where  the  necessary  articles  of  furniture  would  be 
placed.  Where  would  you  cook,  eat,  wash  dishes,  sleep?  What  will  be  the  most 
attractive  part  of  the  house  ? 


248 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


Historic  Buildings.  —  The  study  of  the  plans  of  historic  buildings  will  be 
interesting  to  pupils  in  several  ways.  They  will  better  appreciate  the  masterly  skill 
of  the  ancient  architects  in  grappling  with  their  problems,  as  shown  in  the  plans  on 
page  9  of  the  drawing-book,  when  they  have  had  experience  in  solving  problems  of 
their  own. 

The  plan  of  Egyptian  houses  of  the  ordinary  class  was  very  simple ;  an  illustra- 
tion is  given  on  page  133.     An  elevation  of  an  Egyptian  house  is  given  below. 

The  early  temple  was  nothing  more  than  an  enclosure  or  shelter  for  the  image 
of  the  deity  which  was  worshipped.  This  might  be  illustrated  for  pupils  by  building 
with  square  prisms  or  similar  blocks.  A  prism  standing  on  end  would  serve  as  the 
image  of  the  deity  placed  on  a  pedestal,  and  a  wall  built  around  this,  with  an  open- 
ing for  a  door,  would  show  the  beginning  of  the  temple.  Other  enclosed  areas  or 
courts  were  added  as  they  were  needed,  with  rows  of  tall  columns,  which  supported 
the  roof,  just  as  the  columns  do  which  are  used  in  school  halls  or  large  schoolrooms, 
and  in  our  churches. 

The  plans  of  the  temple  of  Edfou  and  the  Parthenon  in  the  drawing-book 
should  be  compared  with  the  illustrations,  Book  7,  page  16,  and  Book  8,  page  16  ; 
Sixth  Year  Book,  pages  16,  32,  for  the  sake  of  understanding  the  floor  plan,  and 
associating  the  study  of  historic  ornament  with  that  of  construction.  The  study 
of  the  plan  of  the  Parthenon  may  be  made  most  interesting  by  referring  to  Fergus- 
son's  work  on  architecture,  which  gives  a  description  of  the  parts  of  this  temple. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


249 


BOOK  8,  PAGE  lo. 


SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,   PAGE  26. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


Objects.  —  Facts  of  Form.     Conventions. 

Art.  —  Working-drawings.     Manner  of  Drawing. 

[The  pupil  studies  simple  objects,  thinking  of  the  facts  of  form,  and 
of  beautiful  form,  expresses  these  facts  by  quick  sketches,  plans 
for  the  MTorking-draAving'  of  one  of  the  objects  on  the  draAving- 
book  page  and  draws  it  in  the  book,  using'  the  correct  conven- 
tions, and  striving  to  sho^v  adaptation  of  the  form  of  the  object 
to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended,  and  to  finish  the  draw^- 
ing  with  the  beauty  of  good  placing,  neatness  and  accuracy.] 

Creative  Work. — As  a  result  of  the  study  and  making  of  working-drawings 
and  patterns  in  the  preceding  chapters,  the  pupils  will  no  doubt  be  able  to  work 
quite  freely  either  from  simple  objects  or  from  brief  descriptions  of  simple  objects 
called  "  problems."  Possibly  creative  activity  can  be  carried  as  far  as  the  imagina- 
tion of  a  new  object,  and  the  expression  of  this  object  in  a  working-drawing  or  a 
pattern.  The  illustrations  given  below  suggest  objects  and  modifications  that  might 
be  attempted. 


5ec 

ON 

AB 

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m 

0 

1 

1 

\/-    A 

1 

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■^  A 
0 



B 

V_> 



Sec.  oM  C-D 


'  "CON  A-B 


Fig.  I. 


Fig. 


Fig.  3. 


Suggestions  for  the  Teacher.  —  If  problem  work  is  desired,  lead  the 
pupils  to  recall  type  forms  and  their  working-drawings  or  patterns.  Ask  them  to 
change  one  or  more  dimensions  in  one  of  these  forms  and  to  sketch  the  working- 
drawing  or  pattern  of  the  modified  form.  Lead  them  to  imagine  further  modifica- 
tions, to  state  them,  and  to  sketch  them.  In  a  similar  way  lead  the  pupils  to  imagine 
circular  or  square  openings  in  these  modified  forms,  and  to  sketch  working-drawings 
to  show  what  they  have  imagined. 


250  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

Problems. — Write  a  problem  similar  to  the  following  on  the  board,  and  ask 
the  pupils  to  draw  as  directed  in  the  problem  :  — 

A  block  5  in.  x  6^  in.  x  8  in.  is  lying  on  one  of  its  largest  faces.  Sketch  the 
top,  front,  and  left  end  views. 

The  results  will  necessarily  differ,  as  pupils  will  very  likely  imagine  the  block  to 
lie  either  with  the  6|-  or  the  8-inch  side  facing.  This  problem  may  be  made  more 
difficult  by  locating  a  circular  opening  in  the  block  and  by  requiring  a  section  view. 

Here  is  another :  A  block  2  in.  x  4  in.  x  8  in.  is  lying  on  one  of  its  narrow, 
oblong  faces.  A  circular  opening  i  in.  in  diameter  is  cut  directly  through  the  block 
from  the  centre  of  one  of  its  large  faces  to  the  centre  of  the  opposite  face.  Sketch 
the  front  and  end  views,  and  a  top  view  of  a  horizontal  section  through  the  centre. 
The  solution  of  this  problem  will  be  found  in  Fig.  i,  on  page  249. 

"  What  were  labor  but  for  thought  ? 
Baseless  effort  born  of  nought ! " 

—  Charles  Mackay. 

The  Hollow  Hexagonal  Prism.  —  If  a  horizontal  section  is  made,  as 
indicated  by  CD  in  Fig.  2,  it  is  best  shown  by  a  top  view  of  the  section,  or  some- 
times by  a  bottom  view.  The  section  line  AB  in  the  top  view  indicates  a  vertical 
section.  Imagine  the  model, — the  hollow  hexagonal  prism,  —  standing  before  you 
in  the  position  indicated  by  the  views.  Think  of  it  as  cut  straight  through  from  the 
line  AB,  in  a  vertical  plane  facing  you.  If  the  front  half  should  be  removed,  you 
would  have  a  front  view  of  the  section,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Study  of  Beauty.  —  If  some  common  household  object  is  chosen  for  this 
exercise,  it  is  quite  probable  that  its  form  may  be  improved.  The  pupils  should  be 
encouraged  to  feel  that  they  may  make  any  desirable  changes  in  proportion  and 
outline,  thus  carrying  the  work  into  the  designing  of  familiar  and  interesting  objects. 

Additional  Exercise.  —  If  views  of  a  common  object  were  chosen  to  be 
drawn  on  p.  10,  some  pupils  may  have  drawn  something  which  could  be  satisfac- 
torily developed  in  paper  or  cardboard. 

On  the  opposite  page  are  given  suggestive  working-drawings.  Figure  i  shows 
front,  top,  and  end  views  of  a  trunk ;  Fig.  2,  top  and  side  views  of  a  sled ;  Fig.  3, 
front  and  end  views  of  a  dumb-bell ;  Fig.  4,  front  and  end  views  of  a  book-rack ; 
Fig.  5,  three  views  of  a  chair;  Fig.  6,  two  views  of  a  book-case;  Fig.  7,  two  views 
of  a  table,  with  detail  enlarged.  Lead  the  pupils  to  reaHze  that  good  proportion 
should  always  be  considered  in  such  drawings. 


Fig    6. 


Objects  Suggested. 


Fig.  7. 


252 


teacher's  manual. 


The  illustration  given  below  shows  a  book  support  of  heavy  japanned  tin. 
There  are  two  parts,  each  cut  in  one  piece  and  bent  into  shape.  A  cardboard  or 
paper  model  of  this  would  be  a  suitable  exercise  in  surface  development. 


iJ? 


c  \o 

A,  Appearance.         B,  Top  view.         C,  Front  view.         D,  End  view.         E,  Surface  development:  one-half. 


CONSTRUCTION.  253 

BOOK  8,  PAGE  ii.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  27. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

Examples,  —  Designs  for  Brackets.      Space  Relations. 
Art.  —  Elementary  Design.     Space  Relations. 

[The  pupil  studies  the  designs  for  brackets  given  on  the  dra'wing- 
book  page,  observing  the  beauty  of  the  space  relations,  plans 
for  a  simple,  strong,  beautiful  original  design,  makes  sketches 
showing  the  design,  considers  the  space  on  the  drawing-book 
page,  and  draws  the  design  in  the  book,  with  pencil  or  brush, 
seeking  for  beauty  in  the  work.] 

Creative  Ability.  —  There  are  two  forms  of  production,  —  one  imitative,  the 
other  originative  or  creative.  The  creative  faculty  is  based  on  the  imitative,  but  is 
of  a  higher  order,  inasmuch  as  it  reveals  individual  power.  The  imitative  faculty 
leads  to  manufacture,  the  creative  faculty  to  art.  The  methods  of  constructive 
drawing  are  purely  imitative  ;  but  these  methods  furnish  to  the  creative  faculty  in 
construction  the  basis  for  expression  in  constructive  design. 

Every  human  being  possesses  creative  ability,  and  its  development  is  one  of 
the  highest  functions  of  education.  Exercises  calling  for  its  use  are,  therefore,  of 
great  import.  In  undertaking  an  exercise  in  constructive  design,  the  purpose  of  the 
object  to  be  designed,  its  highest  offices,  and  the  possibilities  for  beauty  in  its  form, 
should  be  carefully  considered.  Beauty  in  an  object  adapted  to  its  purpose  is  the 
highest  end  of  the  creative  faculty,  —  it  is  art.  _^ 

Ornamental  Iron  Work. — The  necessity  for  making  fire-proof  buildings 
has  brought  forward  the  use  of  iron  in  many  forms,  and  especially  in  ornamental 
forms  for  stair-railings,  grilles,  panels,  and  elevator  cars.  The  following  quotation 
is  from  Ornarnenial  Iron,  for  September,  1894,  in  which  many  suggestions  con- 
cerning this  work  may  be  found  :  — 

"In  considering  the  part  which  ornamental  iron  work  is  to  take  in  the  plans  of  a 
building,  it  should  always  be  bv/rne  in  mind  that  iron  yields  a  readier  obedience  to  the 
touch  of  the  skilled  artisan  than  any  other  known  material.  .  .  .  There  is  no  design, 
whether  expressed  in  lines  or  in  washes,  which  cannot  be  reproduced  in  iron.  .  .  .  The 
metal  will  respond  to  the  demand  of  the  most  imaginative,  and  the  most  poetic  conception 
susceptible  of  materialization  can  be  set  forth  in  it.'" 

The  examples  chosen  for  this  drawing- book  were  taken,  by  permission,  from 
the  designs  of  The  Winslow  Brothers  Company,  and  show  some  simple  but  effective 
work  in  wrought  iron.      Such  work  is  more  beautiful  than  the  heavy,  ornamental 


254 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


iron  casting,  which  was  so  common  a  few  years  ago,  because,  as  it  is  chiefly  hand- 
wrought,  it  shows  more  of  the  individuahty  of  the  artisan.  The  drawing-book 
examples,  and  the  illustrations  given  below,  show  the  varied  forms  and  uses  of  the 
iron  bar.  Either  cylindric  or  square  bars  are  used  for  the  upright  supports  and 
iirm  horizontals,  which  are  the  elements  of  strength  in  railings  and  window  grilles. 


The  square  bars  may  be  twisted  so  that  the  straight  edges  run  around  the  bar 
like  the  threads  of  a  screw,  to  give  variety  to  a  design.  Flat,  ribbon-Hke  bars  may 
also  receive  this  treatment  with  good  effect.  A  cylindric  wire  is  sometimes  made 
into  a  spiral  spring  (Fig.  8),  and  used  to  give  lightness  and  grace  to  a  design. 

Either  flat,  square,  or  cyHndric  bars  may  be  forged  into  circles  (Fig.  3),  while 
the  flat  bars  are  particularly  well  adapted  to  the  spiral  and  its  modifications  (Figs. 
4-7).  The  fastening  is  often  accomphshed  by  rivets  (Figs.  9  and  10)  or  ferrules 
(Fig.  11),  which  may  be  important  features  of  the  design,  as  they  are  in  the  examples 
given.  Variation  in  the  size  and  length  of  the  bars  is  shown  in  the  portion  of  a  gate, 
Fig.  13,  and  the  strengthening  use  of  the  S  brace  in  the  raihng,  Fig.  12. 


CONSTRUCTION.  255 

A  little  study  of  the  illustrations  will  show  that  the  designs  are  made  from  the 
simple  elements  already  mentioned,  viz.,  the  straight  line,  the  circle,  the  spiral  with 
a  number  of  variations,  the  ferrules  and  rivets  used  for  fastening,  and  some  orna- 
mentally wrought  leaf  forms  used  for  finials. 

With  this  simple  material  for  his  design,  the  artist's  problem  becomes  one  of  so 
disposing  these  elements  as  to  give  the  most  pleasing  arrangement  of  lines,  and  the 
most  beautiful  division  of  spaces.  Beauty  of  line  and  beauty  of  space  relations  will 
be  the  tinal  test  of  the  value  of  the  design.  It  should  be  remembered  that  these 
relations  differ  somewhat  in  an  object  designed  for  a  support,  like  the  bracket,  from 
those  in  a  design  not  intended  for  such  a  purpose.  However  free  the  movement  of 
the  design  may  be,  the  points  of  attachment  must  be  strong,  as  suited  to  the  purpose 
of  the  object.  Always  bear  in  mind  that  as  in  architecture,  the  constructive  lines 
must  be  considered  first,  and  the  ornamentation  second. 

In  a  bracket,  the  triangle  should  never  be  lost  to  sight.  The  mathematical 
truth,  "  the  square  of  the  hypothenuse  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the 
other  two  sides,"  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  strength. 

While  the  triangle  may  be  somewhat  hidden,  it  should,  nevertheless,  be  so 
apparent  that  the  lines  of  strength  are  perfectly  satisfactory  to  the  eye  and  to  all 
constructive  principles. 

The  filling  or  scroll  lines  should  bind  together  and  help  strengthen  the  triangle 
and  give  relief  to  the  eye. 

Examples  of  wrought-iron  work  may  be  found  in  the  Architectural  Record,  the 
Architectural  Review,  and  in  the  Brochure  Series  of  Architectural  Illustration. 

Suggestions  for  Pupils.  —  Notice  the  triangular  shape  of  the  brackets  on  page  ii.  What 
line  represents  the  supporting  member  in  each  of  these?  In  the  shelf  bracket  the 
vertical  and. horizontal  lines  of  the  bracket  are  given,  as  well  as  the  line  of  the  shelf 
and  of  the  wall.  In  the  electric  lamp  bracket  where  do  you  find  the  vertical  and  the 
horizontal  lines? 

Notice  that  the  spiral  curves  just  touch  the  vertical,  horizontal,  and  oblique  lines 
of  the  bracket,  thus  strengthening  the  brace,  as  well  as  giving  a  beautiful  arrange- 
ment of  lines.  The  ferrules,  which  clasp  and  hold  the  parts  together,  add  to  the 
beauty  of  the  design. 

If  it  had  been  desirable  to  have  the  light  farther  away  from  the  wall,  what  change 
would  that  have  made  in  the  proportion  of  the  bracket? 

Sketch  one  of  these  brackets,  enlarged.  Design  a  bracket,  studying  to  make  it 
both  strong  and  beautiful.  Let  this  be  a  bracket  for  some  particular  purpose.  It 
may  be  to  support  a  shelf,  a  projecting  window,  a  lamp,  or  a  swinging  sign.  Study 
the  space  on  the  drawing-book  page.  Redraw  your  design  in  a  size  suitable  for  this 
space.     Finish  the  design  with  brush  and  ink,  or  with  the  pencil. 


256 


teacher's  manual. 


m/MM/MM/M-m^^^^^^^^ 


A 


—B. 


Additional   Exercises.  —  Let  the  pupils  seek  out  and  discuss  designs  in 

ornamental  iron.  These  designs  may 
often  be  found  in  current  magazines. 
Encourage  the  pupils  to  design  not 
only  brackets,  but  simple  grilles  and 
hinges. 

Give  a  definite  purpose  to  such 
design ;  for  example,  a  hinge  for  the 
doors  of  a  cabinet  in  the  parlor,  or  a 
hinge  for  a  glove  box. 

The  long  T  hinge  in  the  illustra- 
tion below  is  quite  in  keeping  with  a 
plain  substantial  door,  and  adds  much 
to  its  appearance. 

A  working-drawing  of  a  common 
butt  hinge  for  a  door  is  given  at  the  left, 
showing  the  front  view,  a  section  made 
at  AB,  and  a  top  view.  In  the  top 
view,  the  movement  of  the  leaves  is 
indicated.  The  essential  parts  of  a 
hinge  are  the  leaves  or  straps,  the  pin 
on  which  the  leaves  turn,  and  the  knuckle,  or  round  portions  in  which  the  pin  turns. 


@ 
@ 

n 

II 

1 
II 

44 

-© 

@ 
@ 

Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


An  illustration  is  also  given  of  a  small  strap  hinge,  Fig.  2,  which  would  be  good 
for  a  glove  box.  Fig.  3  is  a  butt  hinge  which  would  also  be  suitable  for  a  box. 
Fig.  4  is  the  long  strap  of  a  T  hinge  which  might  be  appropriately  used  on  the  door 
of  a  plain  oak  cabinet  or  writing-desk,  as  well  as  on  a  house  door. 


REPEESEN  TA  TION. 


257 


BOOK  8,  PAGE  12. 


SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  28. 


REPRESENTATION. 


Nature. —  Spring  Flowers.     Life  and  Growth. 

Art.  —  Selection.     Composition.     Choice  of  Aspect.     Rendering. 

[The  pupil  selects  and  arranges  two  or  three  flowers,  seeking'  for 
good  composition,  and  sketches  them,  chooses  and  studies  the 
most  beautiful  aspect,  and  draws  the  arrangement  in  the  book, 
seeking  for  beauty  in  relationship  and  in  rendering.] 

Plant  Growth.  — The  most  welcome  of  all  the  year  are  the  spring  flowers. 
Often  the  pupils  bring  them  to  school,  and  in  the  cities  it  is  possible,  through 
"  permits,"  to  obtain  sprays,  and  even 
flowers,   from    the    parks   for   educational  f7^\ 

purposes.     It  would    be    well   to    suggest       \  (/     V\, 

rather  large  flowers  for  this  purpose.  The 
dogwood  blossom,  the  magnolia,  the  dan- 
delion, the  fleur-de-lis,  and  jack-in-the- 
pulpit  are  satisfactory. 

Choice  of  Aspect  and  Arrange- 
ment.—  Whatever  flower  is  studied,  let 
the  page  be  considered  in  reference  to 
the  subject,  and  the  subject  in  reference 
to  the  space.  A  graceful  arrangement  is 
easily  made  through  thoughtful  observa- 
tion and  studying  space  relations ;  thus 
the  pupil  may  do  more  than  reproduce 
what  he  sees  when  he  adds  the  result 
of  the  best  arrangement  of  what  he 
sees.  For  this  reason  it  is  well  to  have 
flowers  liberally  distributed  through  the 
room,  that  the  pupils  may  have  some 
choice.  Do  not  let  them  sit  too  near  the 
flowers,  as  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the 
effects  simple  and  without  many  details. 

Study  of  Illustration. —  In  draw- 
ing-book 8,  page  12  ;  Sixth  Year  Book,  page  28,  notice  the  breadth  of  treatment  m 
the  jonquil,  for  one  must  observe  what  it  is  best  to  leave  out  as  well  as  put  in,  —  this 


258 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 


being  the  art  in  drawing.  Observe  the  direct,  energetic  stem  contrasting  well  with 
the  graceful  curve  where  the  flower  meets  the  stem.  The  leaves  show  some  color, 
but  only  in  a  few  places  are  there  very  strong  darks. 

Values.  — After  the  drawing  is  well  started,  talk  a  little  of  "values,"  or  (as 
shown  in  this  example)  the  relation  of  one  tone  to  another.  If  the  pupils  are 
inclined  to  force  the  tones  immediately  to  black,  place  a  bit  of  dark  green  or  black 
cloth  beside  the  leaves  and  flowers,  and  let  them  see  the  difference.  In  outline 
drawing,  values  may  be  shown  by  the  strength  and  delicacy  of  the  lines,  that  is  to 
say,  the  production  of  values  would  here  refer  to  that  treatment  where  the  impor- 
tant part  or  parts  are  strengthened  and  others  kept  subordinate  by  weaker  Hues. 
The  side  that  expresses  shadow  may  be  darkened,  for  that  is  really  the  beginning  of 
the  study  of  values.  If  the  lines  are  uniform  throughout,  a  drawing  appears  flat  and 
perhaps  inchned  to  be  decorative  in  effect,  while  gradation  or  change  in  the  color 
or  strength  of  line  will  produce  a  pictorial  effect.  The  flowers  on  the  drawing- 
book  page  are  not  placed  far  apart,  and  the  difference  in  values  is  not  great. 

Pupils'  Work. — As  the  pupils  proceed,  it  is  weU  to  have  them  place  their 
drawings  some  distance  from  them  occasionally,  to  study  and  compare.  Faithful 
effort  should  be  respected,  no  matter  how  poor  the  results.  We  should  grow 
technique,  not  force  it. 

"  Now  the  bright  crocus  flames,  and  now 
The  slim  narcissus  takes  the  rain, 
And  straying  o'er  the  mountain's  brow, 


The  daffodils  bud  again." 


•Andrew  Lang. 


PLATE   XIX 


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\wn 


vr 


I 


/I  / 

I// 


/  / 


\  ■  i=/ 


1 bu::....^C£ii 


I  .r /i 

^1  'A  I 


1 


/ 


Reproduction  in  Miniature  of  Work  of  Pupils  in  the  Sixth  Year. 


DECORATION. 


259 


BOOK  8,  PAGE  13. 

Examples.  —  Decorative  Design. 
Art.  —  Appreciation.      Selection. 


DECORATION. 


SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  29 

Space  Relations.      Flower  Form. 
Composition.      Light  and  Dark. 


[Lead  the  pupils  to  study  the  examples  of  decorative  design  on 
the  drawing-book  page,  thinking  of  them  as  designed  from 
flower  forms,  and  observing  the  beauty  of  the  space  relations ; 
to  study  and  arrange  flow^er  forms,  thinking  of  the  decorative 
effect  produced  ;  to  plan  for  a  simple  decorative  design  of  their 
own  composition,  and  to  make  sketches  show^ing  the  design ; 
to  draw  the  design  in  the  books,  considering  a  good  balance 
of  light  and  dark,  and  seeking  for  beauty  of  effect.] 

Study  of  Examples.  —  From  study  of  the  examples  in  Drawing-book  85 
pages  12  and  13;  Sixth  Year  Book,  pages  28  and  29,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
same  flower  has  been  selected  in  each  case.  Lead 
the  pupils  to  tell  you  that  on  the  left-hand  page 
the  real  flower  has  been  drawn  as  it  appeared, 
making  a  pictorial  drawing,  while  on  the  right-hand 
page  the  flower  outline  has  been  used  as  a  decora- 
tive arrangement  for  a  certain  space.  Each  method 
of  treatment  has  its  important  place  in  artistic  ex- 
pression. In  the  latter  a  good  balance  of  light 
and  dark  —  a  pleasing  space  composition  —  is  more 
important  than  the  flower  used,  although  the  well- 
drawn  outline  of  the  flower  is  an  important  element 
of  beauty.  The  principles  of  composition  lead- 
ing to  fine  space  division  can  be  studied  in  all 
the  illustrative  pages,  and  especially  in  Book  i, 
pages  2  and  15;  Book  2,  —  Third  Year  Book,  page 
18;  Book  3,  page  15;  Book  4,  page  16;  —  Fourth 
Year  Book,  page  32;  Book  5,  page  16;  Book  7, 
page  15. 

Call  attention  to  the  use  of  three  tones  in  the 
upper  illustration  on  the  right-hand  page,  also 
to   the  good  drawing  of  the  stems  and  leaves,  showing  the  strong  direct  growth. 

Preparation  for  the  Lesson. — The  pupils  have  drawn  a  flower  on  the  left- 
hand  page  ;  and  this,  if  a  good  and  simple  selection,  may  be  used  as  the  decorative 


260  teacher's  manual. 

motive  on  the  right-hand  page.  Any  simple  spring  flower  may  be  selected,  being 
careful  that  the  flower  is  not  too  small.  The  narcissus,  fleur-de-lis,  tulip,  and  dog- 
wood can  be  usually  obtained  in  the  spring.  If  it  seem  necessary  to  use  small 
flowers  or  grasses  in  this  way,  they  should  be  little  more  than  outline  drawings, 
leaving  out  all  detail.  The  result  to  be  obtained  is  not  an  illustration  of  flowers 
alone,  but  a  beautiful  composition.  This  is  shown  in  a  pleasing  effect,  first  as  a 
whole,  then  as  to  the  balance  of  parts  and  the  distribution  of  light  and  dark. 

Ask  the  pupils  if  they  can  tell  you  what  a  real  artist  is.  Lead  them  to  the  thought 
that  "  an  artist  is  one  who  creates  beauty."  If  they  would  make  their  work  artistic, 
they  must  make  it  beautiful,  putting  their  best  thought  and  effort  into  it.  The  art 
will  come  if  they  make  beautiful  lines  and  choose  beautiful  proportions.  The  illus- 
tration on  page  259  is  a  reproduction  of  work  by  a  pupil  in  the  sixth  year  of  school, 
in  water-color. 

Suggestions  to  Pupils.  —  Plan  the  size  and  proportion  of  the  oblong  for  the  drawing-book 
page  ;  sketch  this  in  lightly,  and  then  plan  the  arrangement  of  the  flower  forms.  Try 
to  draw  lines  beautiful  in  direction  and  in  fitness  to  the  subject,  showing  the  strength 
and  directness  of  the  growth.  If  the  round  Japanese  brush  is  used  in  the  drawing, 
there  is  a  special  opportunity  to  show  individuality.  The  brush  should  be  filled  full 
of  ink,  using  the  point,  drawing  with  the  brush  upright.  This  may  be  carried  out 
with  ink  in  flat  wash,  as  indicated  in  the  drawing-book,  or  with  pencil  line  and 
pencil  painting. 

Suggestions  to  the  Teacher.  —  It  is  not  necessary  in  this  case  that  the 
flower  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  children.  A  flower  that  they  have  previously 
studied  may  be  selected,  and,  perhaps,  a  large  drawing  placed  upon  the  board.  The 
pupils  should  decide  upon  the  shape  of  the  composition. 

In  criticising  this  work  with  the  pupils,  quality  of  line,  fine  spacing,  and  origi- 
nality of  treatment  should  be  considered ;  and,  when  carried  out  in  two  or  three 
tones,  the  balance  of  light  and  dark  should  be  considered.     Plate  XIX. 

If  possible,  time  should  be  taken  to  place  the  drawing-books  where  the  pupils 
can  all  see  them,  —  along  the  ledge  of  the  blackboard,  perhaps,  —  for  criticism  and 
comparison. 

"The  Claims  of  Decorative  Art,"  by  Walter  Crane,  is  a  good  book  for  the 
teacher  to  read  in  this  connection  ;  also,  "  Composition,"  by  Arthur  W.  Dow. 

Added  Interest.  —  Such  compositions  may  be  used  as  head-  or  tail-pieces, 
and  as  decorations  of  book  covers,  etc.  This  exercise  may  be  supplemented  by 
making  designs  for  surface  coverings  —  for  simple  prints,  as  illustrated  on  Plate  XX. 
for  higher  grade  textiles,  for  wall-paper,  or  for  other  decorative  purposes. 


PLATE   XX. 


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A   Page  of  Designs  by   Pupils  of  the   Sixth   Year 


REPli  ESEN  TA  TION. 


261 


BOOK  8,  PAGE  14.  SIXTH  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  30. 

REPRESENTATION. 

Nature.  —  Landscape. 

Art.  —  Elementary  Composition.     Reading. 

[Lead  the  pupils  to  study  and  to  make  sketches  of  a  simple  land- 
scape, observing  the  relations  of  space  and  line,  expressing' 
essential  features,  omitting  detail ;  to  draw  in  the  books,  plan- 
ning for  good  space  composition,  and  seeking  for  beauty  of 
effect.] 

Study  of  Landscape.  — Training  is  as  necessary  to  the  appreciation  of  the 
beautiful  in  landscape  as  it  is  to  the  appreciation  of  beauty  in  literature,  though  at 
present,  examples  of  good  landscape  are  not  as  accessible  for  schodlroom  study. 

For  this  page  it  would  be  best  to  make  preliminary  sketches  or  studies  from  na- 
ture. If  the  school  building  commands  fine  views,  the  class  might  go  to  the  windows, 
or  into  the  school  yard,  selecting  small  bits  that  seem  to  compose  well  as  pictures.  In 
a  city,  a  neighboring  park  might  be  visited,  or  in  the  country  a  "  field  day  "  arranged 
for,  and  part  of  the  time  given  to  botany  or  science  work,  and  part  to  sketching. 

Selection. — The  pupils  should  consider  their  outdoor  sketching  as  serious 
work  ;  they  should  concentrate  both  attention  and  effort  on  the  work  at  hand,  and 
all  should  be  as  quiet  as  when  in  the  schoolroom.  A  bit  of  stone  wall,  a  gateway,  a 
clump  of  trees  reflected  in  the  water,  part  of  an  old  wharf  or  building,  a  boat  by  the 
shore,  —  all  are  good  subjects.  Avoid  too  ambitious  efforts  or  distinctly  panoramic 
effects.  The  pupils  are  learning  to  draw,  as  well  as  to  compose  and  render  with 
artistic  feeling,  and  selection  of  subject  is  as  important  as  selection  of  aspect. 

Composition.  —  A  leading  artist  says  that  before  making  an  outdoor  sketch 
he  takes  different  positions,  drawing  a  few  leading  lines  upon  bits  of  paper,  finally 
selecting  the  one  which  seems  to  promise  the  best  composition. 

A  good  rule  to  observe  is  to  have  a  leading  point  of  interest  and  a  secondary 
one,  the  latter  usually  leading  the  eye  out  of  the  picture. 

The  use  of  a  "  finder  "  is  suggested  to  aid  the  pupils  in  selecting  a  good  com- 
position, a   bit   of  paper  4X5   with    an  oblong  opening  —  say   i"x3",  not    less. 

Looking  through  this  will  suggest  relation 
and  placing  in  composition  as  well  as  in 
selection  of  good  point  of  view.  "Finders" 
of  different  shapes  and  cut  with  more  than 
one  opening,  as  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing illustrations  may  be  used.  These  are  to  be  cut  on  the  inner  full  lines  and 
folded  back  on  the  dotted  lines ;  the  first  has  two  openings,  the  second  four. 


262  teacher's  manual. 

The  Japanese  landscape  (Book  8,  page  2;  Sixth  Year  Book,  page  18),  the 
studies  of  La  Farge,  and  the  landscapes  of  Rembrandt  (Book  8,  page  15  ;  Sixth 
Year  Book,  page  31)  show  a  variety  in  composition  and  in  treatment.  There  are 
also  landscape  studies  shown  in  Book  3,  pages  6  and  16  ;  Book  4,  pages  2,  15,  16  ; 
Fourth  Year  Book,  pages  18,  31,  32  •  Book  5,  pages  15,  16;  Book  6,  pages  2,  15, 
16;  Fifth  Year  Book,  pages  18,  31,  32  ;  Book  7,  page  i. 

"  First  you  compose  :  a  line's  grand  sweep, 
A  break,  a  blend,  a  guide  for  our  eyes. 
You've  a  tone  to  settle,  a  curve  to  keep, 

An  impression  to  catch,  new  tints  to  match : 
\  And  a  lesson  behind  it  surely  lies." 

—  J.  K.  Stevhen. 

Translation  from  Another  Medium.  —  If  season  or  weather  make  out- 
door sketching  impossible,  let  the  pupils  translate  a  photograph  or  drawing  from 
a  magazine  for  this  page.  Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  a  photograph  is  often 
a  literal  copy  of  nature,  while  their  sketches  may  be  interpretations  ;  also,  that 
magazine  reproductions  are  usually  reduced  from  a  much  larger  scale.  Lead  the 
pupils  to  make  a  collection  of  such  examples  to  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom.  These 
should  be  simple  in  character  with  certain  leading  characteristics.  They  should  be 
selected  with  reference  to  simplicity  of  space  divisions,  and  also  as  to  simplicity 
of  tone  values.  Many  of  the  landscape  illustrations  published  are  not  good  in 
composition.  The  same  general  principles  apply  in  selecting  a  good  landscape 
composition  that  apply  in  a  good  group. 

These  examples  might  also  be  used  with  a  "  finder"  to  good  advantage,  selection 
being  made  from  an  illustration  of  a  little  better  composition  by  leaving  out  some 
portion,  making  the  horizon  line  higher  or  lower,  or  cutting  off  at  the  right  or  left  as 
shown. 

Illustrations.  —  The  illustrations  on  page  165  are  variations  of  the  same  com- 
position by  means  of  notan,  or  opposition  of  light  and  dark.  This  is  not  intended 
to  represent  the  light  and  shade,  or  the  real  appearance  of  the  landscape,  but  is 
simply  a  variation  to  obtain  a  beautiful  result.  Such  a  treatment  of  landscape  has 
its  value  on  the  art  side,  although  it  does  not  take  the  place  of  the  frankly  pictorial 
work. 

The  illustrations  on  Plate  XXI.  show  a  photograph  from  nature  and  the  various 
selections  that  may  be  made  from  it  by  using  a  "  finder  "  and  seeking  for  parts  that 
are  agreeably  composed.  How  different  these  selections  are  in  character,  some  giv- 
ing sunshine,  some  shadow,  some  suggesting  companionship,  and  some  seclusion  ! 


PLATE   XXI. 


S- 


J' 


Landscape  and  Selections  from   It 


REPRESENTATION.  26S 

Suggestions  for  the  Pupils.  —  In  carrying  out  this  exercise,  study  the  landscape,  not  for 
the  effect  of  light  and  shade  or  color,  but  try  to  show  such  a  distribution  of  hill,  and 
sky,  and  water,  trees  and  buildings  (as  the  case  may  be),  as  will  make  a  good  space 
composition.  In  drawing  trees  do  not  draw  details  of  branches,  but  express  in  the 
simplest  way  the  space  a  tree  occupies  in  the  landscape  by  giving  the  outline  of  the 
mass  of  the  tree.  A  suggestion  of  branches  may  be  added,  if  necessary,  to  give 
strength  to  the  composition. 

After  the  preliminary  sketching  from  nature  or  photograph,  an  original  composi- 
tion can  be  placed  on  the  drawing-book  page ;  after  lightly  sketching  in  the  space 
divisions  with  pencil,  the  composition  may  be  finished,  as  the  teacher  decides,  either 
in  pencil,  ink  outline  with  brush,  ink  in  light  and  shade,  or  in  color  with  flat  wash. 

If  the  pupils  are  familiar  with  the  use  of  flat  wash  in  water-color,  they  might 
carry  out  the  whole  composition  in  one  color ;  for  instance,  in  tones  of  yellow.  As  an 
example,  take  the  "  River  Charles,"  by  Longfellow,  given  below,  carrying  out  the  sky 
and  water  in  the  lighter  tones,  the  meadows  in  a  deeper  tone,  and  the  ''  shadowy  wood- 
lands "  still  darker.  Or  it  could  be  carried  out  with  blue  water  and  sky  —  not  too 
deep  —  with  green  meadows  and  deeper  green  trees. 

"  River  that  in  silence  windest 

Through  the  meadows,  bright  and  free, 
Till  at  length  thy  rest  thou  findest 

In  the  bosom  of  the  sea  ! 
******* 
"Not  for  this  alone  I  love  thee. 
Nor  because  thy  waves  of  blue 
From  celestial  seas  above  thee 
Take  their  own  celestial  hue. 

"Where  yon  shadowy  woodlands  hide  thee, 
And  thy  waters  disappear, 
.  Friends  I  love  have  dwelt  beside  thee, 

And  have  made  thy  margin  dear." 

Added  Interest.  —  Besides  photographs  and  reproductions  in  books  and 
magazines,  literature  abounds  in  beautiful  landscape  pictures.  R.  L.  Stevenson  was 
especially  fond  of  painting  word  pictures  of  simple  and  beautiful  landscapes,  and 
our  greater  American  poets  were  all  appreciative  of  the  beauties  of  landscape. 

Here  is  a  simple  landscape  composition  from  Emerson  :  — 

"The  wide  lake,  edged  with  sand  and  grass, 
Was  burnished  to  a  floor  of  glass, 
Painted  with  shadows  green  and  proud 
Of  the  tree  and  of  the  cloud." 

—  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 


264  teacher's  manual. 


BOOK  8,  PAGE  IS.  SIXTH  YEAR   BOOK,  PAGE  31. 

ILLUSTRATIVE    PAGES. 

Landscape.  — La  Farge.     Rembrandt. 

Illustrations.  —  The  simplicity  of  the  first  sketch  by  La  Farge  is  noticeable, 
—  but  how  much  the  few  hnes  tell !  It  is  not  much  more  than  an  outline  drawing, 
but  full  of  character.  The  tree  was  evidently  his  chief  thought,  and  then  the  great 
stone  at  its  foot  —  a  resting  place  to  look  off  from  the  little  hill  to  the  distance 
beyond.    The  composition  should  be  studied. 

The  "  Study  of  Values  "  is  equally  suggestive  in  the  rendering  of  color  by  light 
and  dark.  It  is  evident  that  the  artist  did  not  care  for  details  at  all,  but  was  struck 
with  the  opportunity  afforded  for  a  study  of  different  tone  values  in  light  and  dark, 
varying  from  absolute  light  to  deepest  shade.  What  he  wished  to  show  was  simply 
degrees  of  grayness  down  to  black.  A  sketch  of  Mr.  La  Farge  and  his  work  is 
given  on  pages  87-89. 

The  Rembrandts  show  great  repose.  The  touch  is  clear  and  strong,  and  the 
expression  of  distance  is  very  remarkable.  There  are  no  pictures  that  grow  upon 
one  more  than  those  of  Rembrandt.  Study  either  of  these,  but  especially  the  lower 
one,  and  see  how  the  distance  stretches  out  and  out,  and  how  new  things  appear. 
In  the  matter  of  composition  these  two  landscapes  are  very  fine.  Mark  the  very 
simple,  well-balanced  divisions  of  space  in  the  other  —  see  in  the  lower  the  high, 
more  unbroken  mass  at  the  left,  balanced  by  the  low,  level,  and  diversified  space 
at  the  right. 

Rembrandt  Van  Ryn  (i 607-1669)  was  born  at  Leyden,  Holland.  His 
parents  were  in  comfortable  circumstances.  According  to  an  old  chronicler  who 
wrote  an  account  of  Rembrandt's  life,  "  They  sent  him  to  school  to  learn  the  Latin 
tongue,  to  prepare  himself  for  the  Academy  of  Leyden,  that  when  he  became  of  age 
he  might  serve  the  city  and  the  republic  with  his  knowledge  "  ;  but  "  he  had  no 
hking  nor  desire  for  his  studies,  because  his  natural  inclinations  drew  him  on  to  the 
art  of  painting  and  designing."  He  was  sent,  therefore,  at  the  age  of  twelve,  to  a 
studio  to  follow  this  inclination.  When  about  seventeen  he  began  to  observe  for 
himself  landscapes  and  outdoor  aspects,  men  and  women.  As  he  progressed  he 
painted  portraits  and  pictures ;  he  drew  with  the  pencil  and  pen,  and  etched  and 
engraved  ;  he  is  called  the  "  prince  of  etchers."  He  also  received  pupils,  who  came 
to  him  eager  for  instruction.  His  first  etching  in  1628  portrayed  his  mother,  and 
was  a  strong  piece  of  work. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES.  265 

As  works  of  La  Farge  and  Rembrandt  are  given  together  here,  it  will  be  of 
special  interest  to  know  La  Farge's  estimation  of  Rembrandt.  In  his  "Considera- 
tions on  Painting  "  he  says  :  — 

"  The  black  etched  line  of  Rembrandt  will  give  me  a  far  spreading  horizon,  not  in  the 
direction  of  his  line,  but  running  to  it.  A  few  scratches  of  his  will  make  the  earth  sink  or 
rise,  remain  solid,  or  be  covered  with  water  —  no  longer,  in  fact,  be  ink  and  paper,  but  light 
and  air  and  shadow  and  varying  form." 

And,  in  his  "  Artist's  Letters  from  Japan,"  he  further  says  :  — 

"It  will  then  be  in  what  we  call  drawing  —  which  is  an  abstraction,  the  synopsis  of 
the  outlines  of  things  meeting  together,  of  their  relative  intensities,  of  their  own  colors,  of 
their  relations  to  the  place  they  are  in,  that  is  to  say  the  picture  —  that  this  art  of  Japan, 
the  daughter  of  the  art  of  China,  will  attain  its  highest  form  ;  so  that  in  reality  those  of  us 
who  think  of  it  as  appearing  at  its  best  only  in  color,  in  external  charm,  have  not  under- 
stood it.  An  etching  of  Rembrandt  could  fairly  be  said  to  represent,  not  so  much  in  itself, 
but  in  its  essence,  what  a  great  Chinaman  would  have  liked  to  do  in  India  ink — the 
material  of  all  others  which,  even  to  us,  is  his  especially.  The  line,  the  abstract  line  of 
Rembrandt,  its  elegance,  its  beautiful  patterning  of  the  surface,  is  concealed  to  us  by  the 
extraordinary  richness  of  some  of  his  modeling  and  the  extreme  gradations  of  what  we  call 
light  and  shade.  But  it  is  there  all  the  same,  as  a  geologic  foundation,  in  the  same  way 
that  inside  of  the  Titian's  splendor  of  surface  there  is  a  decorative  substructure  as  well 
balanced  and  fixed  as  a  Venetian  brocade  —  just  as  the  works  of  other  great  colorists,  as 
we  call  them  (to  designate  more  complex  men),  imply,  in  their  constitution  and  the 
mechanism  of  their  technique,  powers  of  design  and  drawing  sufficient  to  furnish  our  armies 
of  such  draftsmen  as  flourish,  for  instance,  in  the  Paris  of  to-day." 

Rembrandt's  greatest  painting  was  "The  Night  Watch,"  and  his  greatest  etch- 
ing "Jesus  Healing  the  Sick,"  more  commonly  known  as  the  Hundred  Florin  piece. 
He  produced  very  remarkable  effects  by  his  concentration  of  light,  thus  making 
strong,  but  never  harsh,  contrasts  of  high  light  and  deep  shadow.  His  work  was 
remarkable  for  its  wide  range  of  subject,  wealth  of  imagination,  and  poetic  creative 
power. 

For  an  account  of  the  life  and  works  of  mediaeval  and  of  modern  artists, 
the  following  will  be  found  helpful :  — 

History  of  Paint hig.     Alfred  Woltmann  and  Carl  Woermann.     Two  volumes. 
History  of  Modern  Painting.     Richard  Miither.     Three  volumes. 

These  two  works  are  large  octavos  ;  they  are  the  result  of  great  research,  and 
should  be  on  the  shelves  of  every  pubhc  library  that  has  art  books  for  reference. 


266  teacher's  manual. 

BOOK  8,   PAGE  i6.  SIXTHT  YEAR  BOOK,  PAGE  32. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES. 

Greek  Art.  —  Sculpture,  Painting,  and  Architecture. 

Illustrations.  — The  examples  chosen  give  some  idea  of  the  great  beauty  of 
Greek  art  in  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture. 

The  picture  of  the  Acropolis  shows  how  the  Greeks  massed  their  most  beautiful 
buildings  on  an  eminence.  The  Parthenon  can  be  plainly  seen  ;  at  its  left  can 
be  seen  traces  of  the  Temple  of  Erechtheus,  and  lower  down  at  the  left  can  be  seen 
the  Temple  of  Nike,  and  the  Propylaea,  which  marked  the  entrance  to  the  Acropolis. 

The  Parthenon  itself,  shown  in  the  illustration  at  the  right,  is  still  very  beautiful, 
though  in  ruins.  The  complete  form  of  a  Greek  temple  is  shown  in  the  Temple  of 
Theseus  at  the  lower  left  part  of  the  page.  At  the  right  is  given  the  celebrated 
Caryatid  Porch,  the  roof  of  which  is  supported  by  sculptured  figures  ;  it  is  a  part  of 
the  Temple  of  Erechtheus.  The  examples  of  architecture  are  more  fully  described 
on  pages  191-198. 

An  exquisite  bas-relief  from  a  Greek  tombstone  or  stele,  as  it  was  called,  is  also 
shown  and  below  it  one  of  the  wonderful  Greek  vases,  ornamented  with  painted 
figures,  is  given.  The  stele  attracts  by  its  fine  figures  and  drapery  as  well  as  by  its 
composition.  The  vase  is  very  beautiful  in  its  space  divisions,  its  curvature,  and 
proportion  as  well  as  in  the  spirited  figure  drawing. 

The  background  of  the  Greek  steles  was  frequently  filled  in  with  blue  or  some 
other  strong  color.  The  garments  were  commonly  tinted,  and  frequently  borders 
were  painted  to  represent  embroidery.  The  sculpture  on  the  steles  quite  often 
represented  the  daily  occupation  of  the  person  or  persons  whom  it  commemorated. 

Percy  Gardner,  in  his  "  Sculptured  tombs  of  Hellas,"  thus  describes  the  stele 
shown  on  the  drawing-book  page  :  — 

"Hegesos,  daughter  of  Proxenus,  is  seated  at  the  left,  on  a  chair  which  is  admirably 
shaped  alike  for  comfort  and  steadiness.  Her  hair  is  bound  with  a  beautifully  arranged 
kerchief;  she  wears  the  fine  Ionic  chiton,  with  sleeves  and  an  overdress.  She  is  looking 
at  a  necklace  which  she  has  drawn  from  a  box  held  by  a  serving  girl,  and  which  she  holds 
in  both  hands.  This  necklace  must  have  been  represented  either  by  help  of  color  or 
metal.  The  slave's  more  simple  dress  contrasts  with  the  elegance  of  that  of  her  mistress. 
The  work  seems  to  belong  to  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century.  This  monument  is  not 
in  the  Museum  of  Athens,  but  remains  in  its  place  in  the  cemetery  by  the  gate." 


ILLUSTRATIVE  PAGES.  267 


NIGHT   ON   THE   ACROPOLIS. 

"Athens  is  Greece  ;  and  where  is  Athens'  heart, 
That  throbs  immortal,  if  it  be  not  here? 
The  very  dust  is  sacred,  being  a  part 
Of  her  great  bosom.     Every  chiseled  stone, 
Each  base,  each  arch,  each  pillar,  placed  or  prone, 
To  those  who  bow  at  Freedom's  shrine  is  dear. 
Not  less  do  they  revere 

This  mighty  rock  who  hold  to  Beauty's  worth 
In  fusing  thoughts  of  higher,  grander  things 
Into  the  baser  minds  of  earth  ; 
For  here,  with  heaven-plumed  wings, 
Had  Love  of  Beauty  birth. 

«  Behold,  behold. 
How,  with  imperious  majesty  of  might, 
Against  the  vast,  moon-flooded  wall  of  night. 
The  shattered  shafts  that  were  the  Parthenon 
Loom  large  upon  the  sight ! 

*******         * 

"  We  may  not  linger  till  the  night  wax  old, 
But,  ere  we  turn  to  go. 
Shall  we  not  greet  clear  Hesper  rising  slow 
Above  Hymettus,  looming  black  and  bold  ? 

*'  Reach  out,  O  yearning  soul,  be  drenched  in  light ! 
Melt  into,  mingle  with,  the  soul  of  night ! 
This  is  thy  Greece  ;  thy  dearest  dream  is  won ; 
Thou  standest  on  thy  hope's  supremest  height. 
Within  the  shadow  of  thy  Parthenon  !" 

—  Clinton  Scoli.ard. 


APPENDIX. 

THEORETIC  PERSPECTIVE. 

Formerly  object  drawing  was  taught  by  first  giving  a  course  in  theoretic  perspective. 
This  was  done  that  the  student  might  have  certain  fixed  principles  and  diagrammatic  for- 
mulae by  which  he  might  be  guided  in  object  drawing,  and  by  which  he  might  correct  his 
errors.  It  became  apparent,  however,  as  this  method  was  continued,  that  a  student  might 
be  admirably  grounded  in  theoretic  principles,  diagrams,  and  problems,  and  yet  be  quite 
unable  to  see  or  to  draw  the  appearance  of  an  object.  This  is  only  another  example  of 
the  educational  contest,  words  versus  things. 

Therefore,  methods  in  object  drawing  have  been  changed.  Object  drawing  now 
begins  first  by  memory  or  imagination  drawing,  then  by  a  study  of  the  appearance  of  the 


PICTURE 


PLAME. 


RL.OR  G.U 


FiG    I.  —  Perspective  Diagram. 


object.     From  that  study,  pupils  are  led  to  deduce  certain  general  principles  which  govern 
the  appearance  of  objects  in  different  positions. 

It  is  well,  however,  that  teachers  should  know  something  of  theoretic  perspective  so 

269 


270 


APPENDIX. 


as  to  meet  any  questions  that  may  be  raised  by  the  advocates  of  the  old  method  of  teach- 
ing, as  well  as  to  understand  something  of  what  is  a  very  interesting  science. 

A  drawing  made  according  to  theoretic  perspective  is  the  representation  of  an  object 
or  scene  as  if  seen  through,  and  therefore  upon,  a  pane  of  glass.  It  is  necessary,  then,  to 
imagine  a  plane  (which  takes  the  place  of  a  pane  of  glass)  called  the  Transparent  Plane, 
the  Plane  of  Delineation,  the  Vertical  Plane,  or  most  generally  the  Picture  Plane  (P.  P.). 
The  flat  surface  of  paper  upon  which  a  perspective  drawing  is  made  represents  this  plane. 


The  eye  of  the  observer  is  supposed  to  be  fixed  and  immovable  at  a  point  called  the 
station  point  (S.  P.),  looking  along  an  imaginary  straight  line  called  the  Line  of  Direction 
(L.  of  D.)  to  a  point  called  the  Centre  of  Vision  (C.  V.),  which  is  directly  opposite  and 
on  a  level  with  the  eye,  and  the  Vanishing  Point  (V.  P.)  of  all  lines  at  right  angles  to  the 
Picture  Plane.  The  line  at  the  level  of  the  eye  is  sometimes  called  the  Line  of  the  Hori- 
zon (L.  H.  or  H.  L.). 

The  L.  of  D.  indicates  the  direction  in  which  the  spectator  is  looking.  Its  propor- 
tionate length  is  according  to  the  distance  of  the  spectator  from  the  P.  P.     The  Picture 


APPENDIX. 


271 


Line  (P.  L.),  or  Ground  Line  (G.  L.),  is  the  lower  edge  of  the  P.  P.     The  Field  of  Vision 

embraces  what  the  eye,  when  fixed  in  one  position,  sees  within  a  visual  angle  of  about  60*^. 

Vanishing  Points  are   points   to  which 

parallel  lines  or  edges,  retreating  from  picture 

the  eye,  appear  to  converge. 

All  lines  which,  in  the  object  or 
scene  to  be  represented  in  perspective, 
are  at  right  angles  to  the  P.  P.,  vanish 
in  the  C.  of  V.  All  lines  parallel  in 
the  object  and  at  angles  other  than  90^ 
to  the  P.  P.  converge  to  or  vanish  in 
Vanishing  Points  at  the  left  and  right 
of  the  C.  V.  Measuring  Points  (M.  P.) 
are  points  upon  the  P.  P.  by  use  of 
which  apparent  or  perspective  distances 
are  measured.     See  Fig.  5. 

Convergence  of  lines,  the  apparent 
decrease  in  length  of  equal  lines  according  to  distance,  and  the  increased  foreshortening 
of  distances  as  they  retreat  or  recede  from  the  eye,  can  be  readily  illustrated  by  a  railroad 
track. 


Fig.  3. 


Theoretic  perspective  embraces  parallel  perspective,  angular  perspective,  and  oblique 
perspective.  In  parallel  perspective,  the  object  stauds  parallel  to  the  Picture  Plane, 
Figs.  2,  3,  4;  in  angular  perspective,  the  object  stands  at  an  angle  (other  than  90°)  to 


272 


APPENDIX. 


the  Picture  Plane,  Fig.  5  ;  in  oblique  perspective,  the  object  rests  on  one  of  its  edges  or 
corners,  so  that  in  the  case  of  a  rectangular  object  all  of  its  faces  are  oblique  to  the 
picture  plane. 

'  Parallel  perspective  is  little  used  in  present  construction,  as  it  gives  so  many  distorted 

effects.  It  is  not  countenanced  by  good  artists,  except  under  special  conditions  of  rela- 
tionship of  objects.  The  illustration,  Fig.  4,  shows  a  row  of  three  cubes  in  parallel 
perspective ;  the  one  in  the  middle  is  a  representation  of  the  appearance  of  a  cube  in 
front  of  and  below  the  eye ;  those  at  either  side  can  be  called  approximately  correct,  only 
when  considered  in  relationship  to  the  middle  cube  or  to  each  other.  If  a  cube  should 
be  placed  alotie  at  the  left  or  right  of  the  eye,  it  would,  according  to  parallel  perspec- 
tive, be  drawn  as  in  the  illustration.  Theoretically  this  is  correct,  because  based  on 
the  supposition  that  the  picture  plane  is  fixed ;  but  in  model  and  object  drawing,  this  is 


^^^ 


wrong.  For  in  model  and  object  drawing,  the  conditions  of  theoretic  perspective,  that 
the  eye  and  the  Picture  Plane  are  arbitrarily  fixed  when  a  single  object  or  several  unre- 
lated objects  are  to  be  drawn,  cannot  be  accepted.  In  model  drawing,  when  a  cube  or 
other  object  is  observed  alone,  at  the  left  or  right  of  the  eye,  it  becomes  the  direct  object 
of  observation ;  and  the  eye  is  directed  toward  it  along  a  Line  of  Direction,  AB  or  CD, 
decidedly  different  from  the  L.  of  D.  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  imaginary  Picture  Plane 
must  always  be  at  right  angles  to  the  Line  of  Direction ;  hence,  whenever  the  Line  of 
Direction  is  changed,  the  Picture  Plane  is  also  changed.  Consequently,  when  a  cube  at 
the  left  or  right  of  the  eye  is  observed  alone,  the  Picture  Plane  is  in  quite  a  different 


APPENDIX. 


273 


position  with  relation  to  the  cube  from  that  assumed  in  the  first  instance,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  4.  The  cube  observed  alone  appears  in  angular  perspective ;  the  drawing  will  follow 
the  general  rules  of  angular  perspective,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  5. 

From  a  lack  of  understanding  of  this  change  of  the  Picture  Plane,  many  mistakes  are 
made  in  illustrations  in  books  and  newspapers,  by  draughtsmen,  who  know  only  the  rules 
and  diagrams  of  parallel  perspective.  A  facsi)nile 
of  such  an  illustration  is  given  in  Fig.  6.  These 
illustrations  are,  of  course,  broadcast,  and  the  people 
have  become  familiarized  with  the  error  and  accept 
it  as  truth.  Unfortunately  it  has  crept  into  school 
text-books  also,  and  the  pupils  are  constantly  re- 
ceiving false  impressions.  It  is  especially  neces- 
sary, therefore,  that  teachers  should  have  the  truth 
clearly  in  mind  and  should  confirm  the  statements 
in  the  preceding  paragraph  by  their  own  observa- 
tions of  the  appearance  of  single  objects. 

Those  teachers  who  are  interested  to  look  farther  into  the  matter  of  theoretic  perspec- 
tive will  find  general  statements,  explanation  of  terms,  illustrations,  illustrative  diagrams, 
and  exercises  in  Drawing-Books  Nos.  13  and  14  of  Tlie  American  Text-Books  of  Art 
Education,  published  by  The  Prang  Educational  Company.  1879. 

The  most  exhaustive  modern  book  on  the  subject  is  Modern  Perspective,  by  Professor 
William  R.  Ware,  of  Columbia  College,  published  by  Ticknor  &  Co.,  Boston. 

There  is  an  interesting  book  called  The  Essentials  of  Perspective,  by  L.  W.  Miller, 
principal  of  the  School  of  Industrial  Art  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum,  Philadelphia,  in 
which  the  subject  is  treated  in  a  familiar,  conversational  way,  with  attractive  pictorial 
illustrations,  published  by  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1887. 

A  thoughtful  contribution  to  the  consideration  of  this  subject  will  be  found  in  P^rce- 
Hand  Drawitig,  Light  and  Shade,  and  Free-Hand  Perspective,  by  Anson  K.  Cross, 
Instructor  in  the  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School,  and  in  the  School  of  Drawing  and 
Painting,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  published  by  the  author,  1892. 


Fig.  6.  —  Incorrect  Drawing. 


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